【导语】“那就相信我吧”通过精心收集，向本站投稿了9篇毕设外文翻译怎么找，今天小编就给大家整理后的毕设外文翻译怎么找，希望对大家的工作和学习有所帮助，欢迎阅读!
篇1：毕设演讲稿精选
自20_年6月选定题目后，为了完成任务，本人进行大量的资料收集，有来自网上的论文期刊，图书馆的书目，还有网上各种数据，在向老师的指导下，经过阅读资料，拟定提纲，写开题报告、毕业论文初稿、反复修改等一系列程序，于20_年4月正式定稿。
论文的结构
全文总共分为5个部分，将近5万字。
第一部分主要介绍本课题的研究现状、研究意义，以及研究对象的界定、研究范围及思路。
第二部分是对新时期农村影视创作概况的分析，赋予了农村题材影视的定义，同时也指出了农村题材影视创作的危机所在，而解决的出路在于思想内容上关注新农村、新农民、新农业，表现新气象、新面貌、新作为。
第三部分是对新时期乡村电影流变的分析。纵观新时期以来20多年的乡村电影，就其自身创作和所引起的社会反响来看，是经历了一个始则兴盛、其间沉寂、而后又声音渐起的一种状态。
第四部分是对新时期乡村电视剧兴盛的分析。80年代是乡村电视剧的起步阶段，90年代后逐渐兴盛，特别是新世纪的作品如雨后春笋般涌现出来。本文统计了90年代后农村电视剧的播出情况，对收视率进行了调查，并对热播现象进行了探究。
第五部分是对新时期乡村影视的文化含蕴和审美特征的分析。新时期乡村影视在审美特征上，表现出唯美化的造型风格和散文式的情节结构，而乡村影视呈现出城市化、娱乐化趋向，这是消费文化对乡村影视的冲击和影响所致。
经过本次论文写作，本人学到了许多有用的东西，也积累了不少经验。但由于学疏才浅，能力不足，加之时间和精力有限，在许多内容表述、论证上存在着不当之处，与老师的期望还相差甚远。许多问题还有待进一步思考和探究，借此答辩机会，万分恳切地希望各位老师能够提出宝贵的意见，多指出我的错误和不足之处，本人将虚心接受，从而不断进一步深入学习研究，使该论文得到完善和提高。
以上是我对自己的论文简单介绍，请各位老师提问。谢谢!
之所以选择乡村影视作为毕业论文课题方向，是因为新时期是中国乡村影视的蓬勃发展期，特别是《刘老根》的播出，激起了人们对乡村影视剧久违的热情，它那真实、诙谐、贴近生活的主旨赢得了观众的喝彩，以13.9%的高收视率，创该年度中央电视台第一套节目黄金时间播出电视剧的收视率之最。
随后一系列的乡村电视剧隆重推出，带动了东北农村电视剧的兴盛。本文的创新之处，利用九十年代乡村影视剧播出情况，对收视率进行了调查，热播中体现了乡村影视剧内在的文化含蕴和审美特征。在热播的同时，我们也看到现实主义美学原则的陨落和概念化倾向的回潮，不难看出社会责任感的缺乏和对日新月异的农村的漠视。在消费文化浪潮的冲击下，近年来的东北农村题材电视剧大都注重娱乐化的.表达，有城市化、边缘化、工业化的倾向。乡村影视剧的审美文化形态丧失了现实主义精神告别了崇高和悲剧，戏谑和恶搞成为了时代的宠儿。
篇2：外文翻译
广东工业大学
华立学院
本科毕业设计（论文）
外文参考文献译文及原文
系 部 会计学部
专 业 会计学
年 级 2008级
班级名称
学 号
学生姓名
指导教师
2012 年 5 月
目 录
1 外文文献译文 .......................................................... 1
2 外文文献原文 .......................................................... 9
2 内部环境
【本章摘要】内部环境包含组织的基调，它影响组织中人员的风险意识，是企业风险管理所有其他构成要素的基础，为其他要素提供约束和结构。内部环境因素包括主体的风险管理理念、它的风险容量、董事会的监督、主体中人员的诚信、道德价值观和胜任能力，以及管理当局分配权力和职责、组织和开发其员工的方式。
内部环境是企业风险管理所有其他构成要素的基础，为其他要素提供约束和结构。它影响着战略和目标如何制订、经营活动如何组织以及如何识别、评估风险并采取行动。它还影响着控制活动、信息与沟通体系和监控措施的设计与运行。
内部环境受到主体的历史和文化的影响。它包含许多要素，包括主体的道德价值观、员工的胜任能力和开发、管理当局管理风险的理念以及如何分配权力和职责。董事会是内部环境的一个关键部分，它对其他的内部环境要素有重大的影响。
尽管所有要素都很重要，但是对每个要素的强调程度会因主体而异。举例来说，一家员工较少、专注化经营的公司的首席执行官可能就不会制订正式的职责划分和具体的经营政策。但是，这家公司也会有为企业风险管理提供合适基础的内部环境。
风险管理理念
一个主体的风险管理理念是一整套共同的信念和态度，它决定着该主体在做任何事情――从战略制订和执行到日常的活动――时如何考虑风险。风险管理理念反映了主体的价值观，影响它的文化和经营风格，并且决定如何应用企业风险管理的构成要素，包括如何识别风险，承担哪些风险，以及如何管理这些风险。
成功地承担了重大风险的公司对企业风险管理的看法，似乎不同于由于在危险的地区创业而面临过严酷的经济或管制后果的公司。尽管有些主体会为了满足外部利益相关者――例如母公司或监管者的需要，而努力实现有效的企业风险管理，但是更常见的是因为管理当局认识到有效的风险管理有助于主体创造和保持价值。
当风险管理理念被很好地确立和理解、并且为员工所信奉时，主体就能有效地识别和管理风险。否则，企业风险管理在各个业务单元、职能机构或部门中的应用就可能会出现不可接受的不平衡状态。但是即使一个主体的理念被很好地确
立，在它的各个单元之间仍然会存在文化上的差别，从而导致风险管理应用方面的差异。一些单元的管理者可能准备承担更大的风险，而其他的则更为保守。例如，一个有闯劲的销售职能机构可能会集中关注实现销售，而没有仔细注意对法规的遵循问题，而缔约单元的人员主要集中关注确保符合所有的相关内部和外部政策与法规。孤立地看，这些不同的次级文化都能对主体产生负面影响。但是通过很好的合作，这些单元能够恰当地反映主体的风险管理理念。
企业的风险管理理念实质上反映在管理当局在经营该主体的过程中所做的每一件事情上。它可以从政策表述、口头和书面的沟通以及决策中反映出来。无论管理当局是强调书面的政策、行为准则、业绩指标和例外报告，还是更为非正式地大量通过与关键的管理者面对面的接触来进行运营，至关重要的是管理当局不仅要通过口头、而且还要通过日常的行动来强化这种理念。
风险容量
风险容量是一个主体在追求价值的过程中所愿意承担的广泛意义上的风险的数量。它反映了企业的风险管理理念，进而影响了主体的文化和经营风格。
风险容量在战略制订的过程中加以考虑，来自一项战略的期望报酬应该与主体的风险容量相协调。不同的战略会使主体面临不同程度的风险，应用于战略制订过程的企业风险管理帮助管理当局选择一个与主体的风险容量相一致的战略。
主体运用类似高、适中或低等类别，从质的角度考虑风险容量，或者运用数量化的方法，来反映和平衡增长、报酬和风险方面的目标。
董事会
一个主体的董事会是内部环境的关键部分，它对其要素有着重大影响。董事会对于管理当局的独立性、其成员的经验和才干、对活动参与和审察的程度，以及其行为的适当性都起着重要的作用。其他因素包括提出有关战略、计划和业绩方面的疑难问题和与管理当局进行商讨的程度，以及董事会或审计委员会与内部和外部审计师的交流。
一个积极的和高度参与型的董事会、托管委员会（board of trustees）或类似的机构，应该具有适当程度的管理、技术和其他专长，以及履行监督职责所需要
的思维方式。这对于一个有效的企业风险管理环境至关重要。而且，由于董事会必须准备去质疑和仔细审查管理当局的活动，提出不同的观点，并针对不当行为采取行动，因此董事会必须包含外部董事。
高层管理当局的成员可能带来他们对公司的深入了解，从而成为有效的董事会成员。但是必须有足够数量的独立外部董事，他们不但要提供合理的建议、咨询和指导，而且还要对管理当局形成必要的牵制和制衡。要想使内部环境有效，董事会中的独立外部董事必须至少占多数。
有效的董事会能确保管理当局保持有效的风险管理。尽管一家企业在过去可能没有遭受损失、没有暴露出明显的重大风险，董事会也不能天真地认定带有严重负面后果的事项“在这里不会发生”。应该认识到，尽管一家公司可能有合理的战略、胜任的员工、合理的经营流程和可靠的技术，但是它和所有的主体一样，对于风险而言都很脆弱，因此也需要有效运行的风险管理。
诚信与道德价值观
主体的战略和目标以及它们得以推行的方式建立在偏好、价值判断和管理风格的基础之上。管理当局的诚信和对道德价值观的要求影响这些转化为行为准则的偏好和判断。因为一个主体的良好声誉是如此有价值，所以行为的准则应该不仅仅只是遵循法律。经营良好的企业的管理者越来越接受这样的观点，那就是道德是值得的，道德行为就是良好的经营。
管理当局的诚信是一个主体活动的所有方面的道德行为的先决条件。企业风险管理的有效性不可能脱离那些创造、管理和监督主体活动的人的诚信和道德价值观。诚信和道德价值观是一个主体内部环境的关键要素，它影响着企业风险管理其他构成要素的设计、管理和监控。
树立道德价值观通常很困难，因为需要考虑多个方面的利益。管理当局的价值观必须平衡企业、员工、供应商、客户、竞争者和公众的利益。平衡这些利益可能是复杂而令人沮丧的，因为利益通常是互相矛盾的。举例来说，提供一种必需的产品（石油、木材或食品）可能会导致环境方面的关切。
道德行为和管理当局的诚信是公司文化的副产品，公司文化包含道德和行为准则以及它们的沟通和强化方式。正式的政策指明了董事会和管理当局希望发生
的情况。公司文化决定着实际发生的情况，以及哪些规则被遵循、扭曲或忽视了。高层管理当局――从CEO开始――在确定公司文化方面起着关键作用。作为主体中的居于支配地位的人员，CEO往往确定了道德基调。
特定的组织因素也会影响出现欺诈性和可疑的财务报告行为的可能性。这些因素可能还会影响道德行为。个人可能会因为主体给了他们这么做的强烈动机或诱惑，而参与不诚实的、非法的或不道德的行为。过分地强调结果，尤其是短期结果，可能会造成一个不恰当的内部环境。仅仅关注短期结果即使在短期也可能有危害。专注于底线――不顾成本的销售收入或利润――通常会引发不希望看到的行动和反应。例如，高压销售策略、谈判的残酷或者对回扣的暗示可能会引发具有即期（以及持久）影响的反应。
参与欺诈性和可疑的财务报告行为以及其他形式的不道德行为的其他动机可能包括高度依赖于所报告的财务或非财务信息――尤其是短期结果――的报酬。
从消除或减少不恰当的动机和诱惑到消除不良行为之间要走一段很长的路。就像所建议的那样，它可以通过从事合理而又有利可图的经营活动来实现。例如，只要业绩目标切合实际，业绩激励――配以适当的控制――就能成为一个有用的管理技术。设定切合实际的目标是一项正确的激励措施，它能降低产生相反作用的压力，以及欺诈性报告的动机。同样地，一个控制良好的报告体系能够起到防止错报业绩诱惑的作用。
可疑行为的另一个原因是忽视。道德价值观不仅必须沟通，而且必须辅以关于是非对错的明确指南。正式的公司行为守则对有效的道德项目十分重要，是它的基础。守则致力于一系列的行为问题，例如诚信与道德、利益冲突、不合法或不恰当的支付以及反竞争的（anticompetitive）协议等。向上沟通的渠道也很重要，它带来相关信息并使员工感到舒服。
仅仅有书面的行为守则、员工接受和理解的文件和适当的沟通渠道，还不能确保守则被遵守。对违反守则的员工所给予的处罚，鼓励员工报告所怀疑的违反行为的机制，以及针对知情而不报告违反行为的员工的惩戒措施，对于遵守守则而言也很重要。但是如果不能通过高层管理当局的行为和他们所作的表率提供更有效的保证的话，无论道德准则是否包含在书面的守则之中，对道德准则的遵守
都没有什么区别。对于是非对错――以及对于风险与控制，员工可能会形成与高层管理当局所表现出来的一样的态度。管理当局的行为所传达的信息很快就会被包含到公司文化之中。而且，有关CEO在面临一个艰难的.经营决策时从道德的角度讲“做了正确的事情”的认识，能够在整个主体中传达一个强有力的信息。 对胜任能力的要求
胜任能力反映实现规定的任务所需要的知识和技能。管理当局通过在主体的战略和目标与它们的执行和实现计划之间进行权衡，来决定这些任务应该完成到什么程度。通常会存在能力与成本之间的权衡，比如说，没有必要去雇用一个电气工程师来更换灯泡。
管理当局明确特定岗位的胜任能力水平，并把这些水平转换成所需的知识和技能。而这些必要的知识和技能可能又取决于个人的智力、培训和经验。在开发知识和技能水平的过程中所考虑的因素包括一个具体岗位所运用判断的性质和程度。通常会在监督的范围和所需的胜任能力水平之间作出权衡。
组织结构
一个主体的组织结构提供了计划、执行、控制和监督其活动的框架。相关的组织结构包括确定权力与责任的关键界区，以及确立恰当的报告途径。举例来说，内部审计职能机构的结构设计应该致力于实现组织的目标，并且允许不受限制地与高层管理当局和董事会的审计委员会接触，而且首席审计官应当向组织中能保证内部审计活动实现其职责的层级报告工作。
主体建立适合其需要的组织结构。有的是集权型的，有的是分权型的。有的有着直接报告关系，而其他的则更接近于矩阵型组织。一些主体按照行业或产品线、按照地理位置或者按照特定的配送或营销网络来进行组织。而其他的主体，包括很多州和地方政府单位以及非营利机构，则按照职能进行组织。
一个主体的组织结构的适当性部分地取决于它的规模和所从事活动的性质。有着正式的报告途径和职责的高度结构化的组织，可能适合于拥有很多经营分部、包括外国业务的大型主体。然而，在一家小公司中，这种结构可能会阻碍必要的信息流动。不管采取什么样的结构，主体的组织方式都应该确保有效的企业
风险管理，并采取行动以便实现其目标。
权力和职责的分配
权力和职责的分配涉及到个人和团队被授权并鼓励发挥主动性去指出问题和解决问题的程度，以及对他们的权力的限制。它包括确立报告关系和授权规程，以及描述恰当经营活动的政策，关键人员的知识和经验，和为履行职责而赋予的资源。
一些主体将权力下放，以便使决策更接近于一线的人员。公司可以采取这种方式而变得更具市场驱动的特点，或者更关注质量――或许是消除缺陷、缩短周转时间或者提高客户满意度。通常通过将权力与受托责任（accountability）相结合来鼓励个人在限定的范围内发挥主动性。权力的委派意味着将特定经营决策的核心控制权交给较低的层级――给那些更靠近日常经营业务的人员。这可能包括授权以折扣价格销售产品，商谈长期供货合同、许可或专利，或者参加联盟或合营企业。
一个关键的挑战是仅仅针对实现目标所需要的范围来进行授权。这意味着确保决策是基于合理的风险识别和评估活动，包括在确定接受何种风险以及如何对它们加以管理的过程中，估计风险的大小和权衡潜在的损失与收益。
另一个挑战是确保所有的人员都了解主体的目标。每个人都知道他们的行为彼此之间有什么关联和对实现目标有什么作用，是至关重要的。
增加授权有时候有意伴随着组织结构的简化或“扁平化”，或者是其结果。为激发创造性、发挥主动性和加快反应速度而开展的有意识的组织变革，能够提高竞争力和客户满意度。这种增加授权可能会带来对更高的员工胜任能力水平以及更大的受托责任的隐含要求。它还要求管理当局采用有效的程序对结果进行监控，从而使决策能够根据需要被否决或接受。有了更好的、市场驱动的决策，授权能够增加非期望或非预期决策的数量。例如，如果一个区域销售经理决定授权在零售价的基础上折让35%来进行销售，以证实目前45%的折扣能够获取市场份额，管理当局可能需要了解情况才能否决或者接受让这种决策进行下去。
内部环境极大地受到个人对他们将要承担责任的认识程度的影响。对于首席执行官而言，也是如此，他在董事会的监督下对主体内部的所有活动负有终极责
任。
与有效的企业风险管理密不可分的各个方面的职能与责任的其他相关原则，将在“职能与责任”那一章中展开讲述。
人力资源准则
包括雇用、定位、培训、评价、咨询、晋升、付酬和采取补偿措施在内的人力资源业务向员工传达着有关诚信、道德行为和胜任能力的期望水平方面的信息。例如，强调教育背景、前期工作经验、过去的成就和有关诚信和道德行为的证据，以便雇用资质最好的个人的准则，表明了一个主体对胜任和可信任人员的承诺。当招录活动中包括正式的、深入的招聘面试和有关该主体的历史、文化和经营风格方面的培训时，也是如此。
培训政策能够通过对未来职能与责任的沟通，以及包含诸如培训学校和研习班、模拟案例研究和扮演角色练习等活动，来加强业绩和行为的期望水平。根据定期业绩评价所进行的调换与晋升，反映了主体对于提升合格员工的承诺。包括分红激励在内的竞争性的报酬计划能够起到鼓励和强化突出业绩的作用――尽管奖金制度应该严密并且有效地控制，以避免对报告结果的不实呈报产生不当的诱惑。惩戒行动所传递的信息则是对期望行为的偏离将不会得到宽宥。
随着贯穿于主体之中的问题和风险的变化和愈加复杂――部分原因在于急剧变革的技术和日益激烈的竞争，很有必要把员工武装起来以应对新的挑战。教育和培训，不管是课堂讲授、自学还是在职培训，都必须有助于个人跟上环境变革的步伐并能有效地应对。雇用胜任的人员和提供一次性培训是不够的。教育过程是持续的。
影响
一个主体内部环境的重要性和它对企业风险管理的其他构成要素所能产生的正面或负面影响，怎么强调都不过分。一个无效的内部环境的影响会很广泛，可能会导致财务损失、损害公众形象，或经营失败。
一般认为某能源公司有着有效的企业风险管理，因为它有强有力而受人尊敬的高层管理者、声望卓著的董事会、富有创新意识的战略、设计良好的信息系统
和控制活动、描述风险和控制职能的广泛的政策手册，以及全面的调整和监督途径。但是，它的内部环境却有重大缺陷。管理当局参与了十分可疑的经营业务，而董事会却视而不见。这家公司被发现曾经误报财务成果，损害了股东信心，遭遇了偿债危机，毁灭了主体的价值。最终这家公司陷入了历史上最大的破产案之一。
高层管理当局对有效企业风险管理的态度和关注必须明确而清晰，并渗透到组织之中。光说得正确是不够的。那种“按我说的去做，而不是按我做的去做”的态度，只会带来一个无效的环境。
2. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Chapter Summary: The internal
environment encompasses the tone of an
organization, influencing the risk consciousness
of its people, and is the basis for all other
components of enterprise risk management,
providing discipline and structure. Internal
environment factors include an entity’s risk
management philosophy; its risk appetite;
oversight by the board of directors; the integrity,
ethical values, and competence of the entity’s people; and the way management assigns authority and responsibility, and organizes and develops its people.
The internal environment is the basis for all other components of enterprise risk management, providing discipline and structure. It influences how strategies and objectives are established, business activities are structured, and risks are identified, assessed, and acted upon. And it influences the design and functioning of control activities, information and communication systems, and monitoring activities.
The internal environment is influenced by an entity’s history and culture. It comprises many elements, including the entity’s ethical values, competence and development of personnel, management’s philosophy for managing risk, and how it assigns authority and responsibility. A board of directors is a critical part of the internal environment and significantly influences other internal environment elements.
Although all elements are important, the extent to which each is addressed will vary with the entity. For example, the chief executive of a company with a small workforce and centralized operations might not establish formal lines of responsibility and detailed operating policies. Nevertheless, the company could have an internal
environment that provides an appropriate foundation for enterprise risk management.
Risk Management Philosophy
An entity’s risk management philosophy is the set of shared beliefs and attitudes characterizing how the entity considers risk in everything it does, from strategy development and implementation to its day-to-day activities. Its risk management philosophy reflects the entity’s values, influencing its culture and operating style, and affects how enterprise risk management components are applied, including how risks are identified, the kinds of risks accepted, and how they are managed.
A company that has been successful accepting significant risks is likely to have a different outlook on enterprise risk management than one that has faced harsh economic or regulatory consequences as a result of venturing into dangerous territory. While some entities may work to achieve effective enterprise risk management to satisfy requirements of an external stakeholder, such as a parent company or regulator, more often it is because management recognizes that effective risk management helps the entity create and preserve value.
When the risk management philosophy is well developed, understood, and embraced by its personnel, the entity is positioned to effectively recognize and manage risk. Otherwise, there can be unacceptably uneven application of enterprise risk management across business units, functions, or departments. But even when an entity’s philosophy is well developed, there nonetheless may be cultural differences among its units, resulting in variation in enterprise risk management application. Managers of some units may be prepared to take more risk, while others are more conservative. For example, an aggressive selling function may focus its attention on making a sale, without careful attention to regulatory compliance matters, while the contracting unit’s personnel focus significant attention on ensuring compliance with all relevant internal and external policies and regulations. Separately, these different subcultures could adversely affect the entity. But by working well together the units can appropriately reflect the entity’s risk management philosophy.
The enterprise’s risk management philosophy is reflected in virtually everything management does in running the entity. It is captured in policy statements, oral and
written communications, and decision making. Whether management emphasizes written policies, standards of behavior, performance indicators, and exception reports, or operates more informally largely through face-to-face contact with key managers, of critical importance is that management reinforces the philosophy not only with words but also with everyday actions.
Risk Appetite
Risk appetite is the amount of risk, on a broad level, an entity is willing to accept in pursuit of value. It reflects the enterprise’s risk management philosophy, and in turn influences the entity’s culture and operating style.
Risk appetite is considered in strategy setting, where the desired return from a strategy should be aligned with the entity’s risk appetite. Different strategies will expose the entity to different levels of risk, and enterprise risk management, applied in strategy setting, helps management select a strategy consistent with the entity’s risk appetite.
Entities consider risk appetite qualitatively, with such categories as high, moderate, or low, or take a quantitative approach, reflecting and balancing goals for growth and return with risk.
Board of Directors
An entity’s board of directors is a critical part of the internal environment and significantly influences its elements. The board’s independence from management, experience and stature of its members, extent of its involvement and scrutiny of activities, and appropriateness of its actions all play a role. Other factors include the degree to which difficult questions are raised and pursued with management regarding strategy, plans, and performance, and interaction the board or audit committee has with internal and external auditors.
An active and involved board of directors, board of trustees, or comparable body should possess an appropriate degree of management, technical, and other expertise,
coupled with the mind-set necessary to perform its oversight responsibilities. This is critical to an effective enterprise risk management environment. And, because the board must be prepared to question and scrutinize management’s activities, present alternative views, and act in the face of wrongdoing, the board must include outside directors.
Members of top management may be effective board members, bringing their deep knowledge of the company. But there must be a sufficient number of independent outside directors not only to provide sound advice, counsel, and direction, but also to serve as a necessary check and balance on management. For the internal environment to be effective, the board must have at least a majority of independent outside directors.
Effective boards of directors ensure that management maintains effective risk management. Although an enterprise historically might have not suffered losses and have no obvious significant risk exposure, the board does not succumb to the mythical notion that events with seriously adverse consequences “couldn’t happen here.” It recognizes that while a company may have a sound strategy, competent employees, sound business processes, and reliable technology, it, like every entity, is vulnerable to risk, and an effectively functioning risk management process is needed.
Integrity and Ethical Values
An entity’s strategy and objectives and the way they are implemented are based on preferences, value judgments, and management styles. Management’s integrity and commitment to ethical values influence these preferences and judgments, which are translated into standards of behavior. Because an entity’s good reputation is so valuable, the standards of behavior must go beyond mere compliance with law. Managers of well-run enterprises increasingly have accepted the view that ethics pays and ethical behavior is good business.
Management integrity is a prerequisite for ethical behavior in all aspects of an entity’s activities. The effectiveness of enterprise risk management cannot rise above
the integrity and ethical values of the people who create, administer, and monitor entity activities. Integrity and ethical values are essential elements of an entity’s internal environment, affecting the design, administration, and monitoring of other enterprise risk management components.
Establishing ethical values often is difficult because of the need to consider the concerns of several parties. Management values must balance the concerns of the enterprise, employees, suppliers, customers, competitors, and the public. Balancing these concerns can be complex and frustrating because interests are often at odds. For example, providing an essential product (petroleum, lumber, or food) may cause environmental concerns.
Ethical behavior and management integrity are by-products of the corporate culture, which encompasses ethical and behavioral standards and how they are communicated and reinforced. Official policies specify what the board and management want to happen. Corporate culture determines what actually happens, and which rules are obeyed, bent, or ignored. Top management C starting with the CEO C plays a key role in determining the corporate culture. As the dominant personality in an entity, the CEO often sets the ethical tone.
Certain organizational factors also can influence the likelihood of fraudulent and questionable financial reporting practices. Those same factors are likely to influence ethical behavior as well. Individuals may engage in dishonest, illegal, or unethical acts simply because the entity gives them strong incentives or temptations to do so. Undue emphasis on results, particularly in the short term, can foster an inappropriate internal environment. Focusing solely on short- term results can hurt even in the short term. Concentration on the bottom line C sales or profit at any cost C often evokes unsought actions and reactions. High-pressure sales tactics, ruthlessness in negotiations, or implicit offers of kickbacks, for instance, may evoke reactions that can have immediate (as well as lasting) effects.
Other incentives for engaging in fraudulent or questionable reporting practices and, by extension, other forms of unethical behavior may include rewards highly dependent on reported financial and non-financial information, particularly for
short-term results.
Removing or reducing inappropriate incentives and temptations goes a long way toward eliminating undesirable behavior. As suggested, this can be achieved by following sound and profitable business practices. For example, performance incentives C accompanied by appropriate controls C can be a useful management technique as long as the performance targets are realistic. Setting realistic targets is a sound motivational practice, reducing counterproductive stress as well as the incentive for fraudulent reporting. Similarly, a well- controlled reporting system can serve as a safeguard against temptation to misstate performance.
Another cause of questionable practices is ignorance. Ethical values must be not only communicated but also accompanied by explicit guidance regarding what is right and wrong.
Formal codes of corporate conduct are important to and the foundation of an effective ethics program. Codes address a variety of behavioral issues, such as integrity and ethics, conflicts of interest, illegal or otherwise improper payments, and anticompetitive arrangements. Upward communications channels where employees feel comfortable bringing relevant information also are important.
Existence of a written code of conduct, documentation that employees received and understand it, and an appropriate communications channel by themselves do not ensure the code is being followed. Also important to compliance are resulting penalties to employees who violate the code, mechanisms that encourage employee reporting of suspected violations, and disciplinary actions against employees who knowingly fail to report violations. But compliance with ethical standards, whether or not embodied in a written code, is equally if not more effectively ensured by top management’s actions and the examples they set. Employees are likely to develop the same attitudes about right and wrong C and about risks and controls C as those shown by top management. Messages sent by management’s actions quickly become embodied in the corporate culture. And, knowledge that the CEO has “done the right thing” ethically when faced with a tough business decision, sends a powerful message throughout the entity.
Commitment to Competence
Competence reflects the knowledge and skills needed to perform assigned tasks. Management decides how well these tasks need to be accomplished, weighing the entity’s strategy and objectives against plans for their implementation and achievement. A trade-off often exists between competence and cost C it is not necessary, for instance, to hire an electrical engineer to change a light bulb.
Management specifies the competency levels for particular jobs and translates those levels into requisite knowledge and skills. The necessary knowledge and skills in turn may depend on individuals’ intelligence, training, and experience. Factors considered in developing knowledge and skill levels include the nature and degree of judgment to be applied to a specific job. Often a trade-off can be made between the extent of supervision and the requisite competence level of the individual.
Organizational Structure
An entity’s organizational structure provides the framework to plan, execute, control, and monitor its activities. A relevant organizational structure includes defining key areas of authority and responsibility and establishing appropriate lines of reporting. For example, an internal audit function should be structured in a manner that achieves organizational objectivity and permits unrestricted access to top management and the audit committee of the board, and the chief audit executive should report to a level within the organization that allows the internal audit activity to fulfill its responsibilities.
An entity develops an organizational structure suited to its needs. Some are centralized, others decentralized. Some have direct reporting relationships, while others are more of a matrix organization. Some entities are organized by industry or product line, by geographical location or by a particular distribution or marketing network. Other entities, including many state and local governmental units and not-for-profit institutions, are organized by function.
The appropriateness of an entity’s organizational structure depends, in part, on its
size and the nature of its activities. A highly structured organization with formal reporting lines and responsibilities may be appropriate for a large entity that has numerous operating divisions, including foreign operations. However, such a structure could impede the necessary flow of information in a small company. Whatever the structure, an entity should be organized to enable effective enterprise risk management and to carry out its activities so as to achieve its objectives.
Assignment of Authority and Responsibility
Assignment of authority and responsibility involves the degree to which individuals and teams are authorized and encouraged to use initiative to address issues and solve problems, as well as limits to their authority. It includes establishing reporting relationships and authorization protocols, as well as policies that describe appropriate business practices, knowledge and experience of key personnel, and resources provided for carrying out duties.
Some entities have pushed authority downward to bring decision making closer to front-line personnel. A company may take this tack to become more market-driven or quality-focused C perhaps to eliminate defects, reduce cycle time, or increase customer satisfaction. Alignment of authority and accountability often is designed to encourage individual initiatives, within limits. Delegation of authority means surrendering central control of certain business decisions to lower echelons C to the individuals who are closest to everyday business transactions. This may involve empowerment to sell products at discount prices; negotiate long-term supply contracts, licenses, or patents; or enter alliances or joint ventures.
A critical challenge is to delegate only to the extent required to achieve objectives. This means ensuring that decision making is based on sound practices for risk identification and assessment, including sizing risks and weighing potential losses versus gains in determining which risks to accept and how they are to be managed.
Another challenge is ensuring that all personnel understand the entity’s objectives. It is essential that individuals know how their actions are related to one
another and contribute to achievement of the objectives.
Increased delegation sometimes is intentionally accompanied by or the result of streamlining or “flattening” the organizational structure. Purposeful structural change to encourage creativity, taking initiative, and faster response times can enhance competitiveness and cu外文翻译范文stomer satisfaction. This increased delegation may carry an implicit requirement for a higher level of employee competence, as well as greater accountability. It also requires effective procedures for management to monitor results so that decisions can be overruled or accepted as necessary. Along with better, market-driven decisions, delegation may increase the number of undesirable or unanticipated decisions. For example, if a district sales manager decides that authorization to sell at 35% off list price justifies a temporary 45% discount to gain market share, management may need to know so that it can overrule or accept such decisions going forward.
The internal environment is greatly influenced by the extent to which individuals recognize that they will be held accountable. This holds true all the way to the chief executive, who, with board oversight, has ultimate responsibility for all activities within an entity.
Additional principles related to roles and responsibilities by parties integral to effective enterprise risk management are set forth in the Roles and Responsibilities chapter.
Human Resource Standards
Human resource practices pertaining to hiring, orientation, training, evaluating, counseling, promoting, compensating, and taking remedial actions send messages to employees regarding expected levels of integrity, ethical behavior, and competence. For example, standards for hiring the most qualified individuals, with emphasis on educational background, prior work experience, past accomplishments, and evidence of integrity and ethical behavior, demonstrate an entity’s commitment to competent and trustworthy people. The same is true when recruiting practices include formal,
in-depth employment interviews and training in the entity’s history, culture, and operating style.
Training policies can reinforce expected levels of performance and behavior by communicating prospective roles and responsibilities and by including such practices as training schools and seminars, simulated case studies, and role-playing exercises. Transfers and promotions driven by periodic performance appraisals demonstrate the entity’s commitment to advancement of qualified employees. Competitive compensation programs that include bonus incentives serve to motivate and reinforce outstanding performance C although reward systems should be structured, and controls in place, to avoid undue temptation to misrepresent reported results. Disciplinary actions send a message that violations of expected behavior will not be tolerated.
It is essential that employees be equipped to tackle new challenges as issues and risks throughout the entity change and become more complex C driven in part by rapidly changing technologies and increasing competition. Education and training, whether classroom instruction, self-study, or on-the-job training, must help personnel keep pace and deal effectively with the evolving environment. Hiring competent people and providing one-time training are not enough. The education process is ongoing.
Implications
It is difficult to overstate the importance of an entity’s internal environment and the impact C positive or negative C it can have on other enterprise risk management components. The impact of an ineffective internal environment can be far-reaching, possibly resulting in financial loss, a tarnished public image, or a business failure.
An energy company generally was thought to have effective enterprise risk management since it had high-powered and respected senior managers, a prestigious board of directors, an innovative strategy, well-designed information systems and control activities, extensive policy manuals prescribing risk and control functions, and
comprehensive reconciling and supervisory routines. Its internal environment, however, was significantly flawed.
Management participated in highly questionable business practices, and the board turned a “blind-eye.” The company was found to have misreported financial results and suffered a loss of shareholder confidence, a liquidity crisis, and destruction of entity value. Ultimately the company went into one of the largest bankruptcies in history.
The attitude and concern of top management for effective enterprise risk management must be definitive and clear, and permeate the organization. It is not sufficient to say the right words. An attitude of “do as I say, not as I do” will only bring about an ineffective environment.
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篇3：毕设开题报告
1.课程设计的意义
通过本次的课程设计，使自己拥有一定的暖通空调设计能力；了解一些相关的规范和条例；熟悉并掌握暖通空调设计流程；同时使自己的思维更加的严谨，态度更加的认真，为以后的社会工作奠定了扎实的基础。
2.文献综述
随着国民经济的快速持续发展，作为支柱产业之一的建筑业也得到迅猛发展。而作为建筑业的重要组成部份的暖通空调业，其新产品、新技术、新材料更是层出不穷。暖通空调业发展所遵循的原则，概括起来就是：节能、环保、可持续发展，保证建筑环境的卫生与安全，适应国家的能源结构调整战略，贯彻热、冷计量政策，创造不同地域特点的暖通空调发展技术。因此，如何结合设计的需要，重视相关技术，并有选择而合理的应用在我们的设计中，满足业主要求，提高设计水平，是我们必须努力做到的。
2.1.暖通空调变工况点优化控制及能量管理探讨
2.1.1.工况点优化控制
暖通空调变工况点优化控制问题的研究近年来在我国被重视。提出了一种基于整个系统环境的预测响应及能量运行来改变暖通空调系统控制，设定点的系统方法，并用遗传算法对系统进行优化控制，同时优化多个设定点来改善系统响应和降低系统能耗[1]，后来他又采用自适应性控制理论对某海水冷却。空调系统进行了优化控制研究，采用带指数遗忘的最小二乘法参数辨识方法和基因遗传优化算法，对空调系统的空气处理单元进行了优化控制研究[2]。罗启军等人提出了一项动态的优化技术在一个指定期间内，能得到使目标函数（ 运行成本或者峰值能耗） 最小的房间温度曲线，该算法还给出了暖通空调设备的最佳开/关时间[3] 等人提出用遗传算法对风冷制冷机的冷凝温度设定点进行优化控制以提高制冷机的效率[4]。此外，有许多研究者用人工神经网络来模拟暖通空调系统中各个设备的非线性特性，用于实现对整个空调系统的优化控制。目前，研究者们将更多先进的建模方法和智能优化方法引入到了暖通空调的优化控制中，更加注重变工况点的在线优化控制。何厚建等人对已建的暖通空调各关键设备的静态模型采用用实数编码的遗传算法建立了水系统工作点优化控制策略[5]杨晓平等人采用模糊聚类和RBF方法建立了空气处理单元的动态数学模型，以最终舒适性为目标优化空气处理单元的温湿度和送风压力[6]。孙一坚根据空调负荷变化对一级泵水系统进行变流量控制，取得了显著效果[7]。总之国内的学者更多探讨的是把智能方法引入控制系统的优化中，仿真研究多，实践成果少。
2.1.2.基础控制器参数整定
在回路控制方面，江大勇等人论证了应用人工神经元网络（ ANN） 对暖通空调负荷能耗进行建模的可行性，并指出可以利用 ANN 模型识别输入输出从而实现空调系统的优化控制[8]；孙英等人采用基于 BP 神经网络的预测控制算法，实现蓄冰空调的蓄冷量控制，解决了PID 控制中超调和波动时间长 抗干扰能力弱及解耦控制效果差的问题，从而降低了空调系统的能耗；曹国庆等人将参数自整定的 PID 控制引入空调系统的控制过程中，实现了PID参数自整定，可以把温度的变化范围控制在±0. 5℃；吴柳波等人研究了变风量空调系统送风段静压控制的实现，并分别用带积分分离的增量型 PID 控制算法和模糊控制算法编制了应用程序。根据空调实验室实际控制效果指出了这两种控制方法的优缺点：由于暖通空调系统的控制回路非常多，并且各对象的特性各不相同，因此，所采用的回路控制器参数整定和控制方法也不相同，控制器的研究成果也较多。
2.1.3.能量管理
随着计算机的普及应用，计算机系统逐步取代常规仪表而成为暖通空调系统的智能化监测控制和管理设备在暖通空调系统的控制管理中，应用计算机技术可以有效地改善系统运行质量，减少运行能耗，并降低运行管理劳动强度，取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益江亿研究了各种空调系统的计算机监测控制，通过启/ 停中央控制管理机器来修改参数的设定值。翁史俊探讨了空调冷热源和输送部分的空调自控节能方法，该方法通过接受现场智能操作台的指令对制冷热泵机组水泵和风机实现联锁、逻辑、顺序启停和节能控制，根据冷水机组的冷水供回水温度和温差等信息控制冷水机组冷却塔风机等设备台数和组合最佳以达到节能的目的；曹秋声基于变频技术，结合最优控制和模糊控制，研制了具有负荷随动跟踪特性的专用管理系统软件，实现了暖通空调节能控制钟玮采用根据冷热负荷计算选择COP值适合的冷热源机组和末端设备，以节约冷热源，采用变频技术等手段使水泵变流量运行，以减少水风系统的输送能耗晋欣桥在对多区域变风量空调及其控制系统分析。研究的基础上，根据ASHRAE通风标准对新风量的要求，针对混合送风系统仿真分析了4种新风分配方案的控制方案，综合考察了各方案的新风分配以及系统能耗情况。结果表明，通过VAV末端再热控制并结合AHU送风温度优化的控制方案，可以较好地解决多区域VAV 空调系统的新风分配问题，同时能有效地降低系统的能耗。总之，能量管理系统体现在设备组合优化工作时序优化以及各种能量指标的统计计量考核方面。
2.1.4.暖通空调优化控制及能量管理技术的发展方向
（1） 现有的暖通空调控制系统以提高自动化水平为主要内容，采用的是以传统PID为控制策略的回路控制和设备顺序、逻辑控制开关量构成的基础控制单元器，CPU 核心处理以8位单片机为主随着嵌入式系统和智能控制理论的发展，以及嵌入式微处理器价格越来越便宜，基于16 位及以上的嵌入式微处理器系统，采用高级控制策略，具有自适应自学习功能的单元控制器必将成为单元控制器的主流，它可以实现使控制对象在变负荷多工况，任何初始条件下逐步学习达到回路最优控制，实现各环节最佳控制的目的。
（2） 目前暖通空调系统都是以定工作点的方式实现各设备的温度压力流量等参数的控制，每个设备（ 或环节） 各自在某一条件下有最佳设定点。但这样处理的结果对于整个暖通空调系统不一定是最佳的， 在各工况条件下不能保证以最节能方式运行。如何在各个负荷下，以整个系统的能耗为最优性能指标，寻找每个设备（ 或环节） 的最佳设定值是优化控制研究的一个重要方面，也是节能的关键。
（3） 现有暖通空调系统管理功能更多体现在监控，即对基础控制单元的信息进行集中管理报告、报警、状态监测的设备的调度等。如何在现有基础上增加能量管理功能，监测暖通空调各个环节的末端用户能量使用情况是必须研究的。
（4） 网络技术的应用目前的暖通空调控制系统存在不同的控制协议，不同的控制系统具有不同的开发环境和技术标准。但随着企业信息化程度的提高，不仅需要暖通空调各控制系统集成，而且，系统的能量管理和设备的运行信息也要纳入到以Internet和Intranet构成的企业信息管理系统中 实现异构计算机系统的数据共享和信息交换，是暖通空调能量管理与优化控制的又一个发展方向。
（5） 基于人体状态的智能化系统笔者通过对已实施的酒店、餐厅、办公楼、服务大厅等不同使用功能的空调控制进行调查和研究，发现无论采用何种控制技术和管理技术，仍然有许多用户对空调控制不满意，即同样的温湿度条件下不同人感受不同，有人觉得冷，有的人觉得不冷；，有人觉得舒适，有人觉得不适。这种个体感觉的差异将引领现有空调控制和能量管理技术的重大变革。笔者认为，以现有控制方法和技术为基础，充分利用传感技术和感应技术，通过对人体状态的模拟，以人的状态改变轨迹为主轴，建立一种以人的感受和状态为输入，以空气温度、湿、流速为主要输出的空调控制和能量管理系统将是未来发展的主要研究方向。
2.2.浅谈环保节能技术在暖通空调系统中的应用
从十九世纪二十年代，压缩式制冷机获得可空前的发展，暖通空调技术也已经普遍运用在各种公共建筑与商用建筑之中，对室内环境起到了改善的作用，也对室内空气质量的舒适感和高品质提供了有力的保障。纵观国内外建筑业，民用建筑和工业建筑开始大范围的实验中央空调，它的广泛运用标志着一个地区的科技与经济水平的发展程度，也从本质上对企业的管理水平起到了完善的作用。暖通空调系统的节能问题也受到了人们的广泛关注。由于现代人们的生活理念与方式的多样化细节化程度的提高，对于建筑物内的环境需要逐步加强。本文就暖通空调系统中环保节能技术的应用及其可发展运用的自然资源，进行深入探讨。
2.2.1.暖通空调的作用
安装暖通空调的目的是对室内工作和生活环境的舒适度进行调整。其作用主要为了调整空气的温度与湿度、气流速度和洁净度等。在常规的空调舒适性要求中，以可以满足人体保持热均匀而产生舒适感为目标，在恒温恒湿或有清洁要求的工艺性空调室内，重要的是以满足生产工艺为正常标准[9]。
2.2.2.暖通空调对人体的影响
由于建筑物的密闭性普遍的增强，装修的工序越来越繁琐，从而致使室内污染物的大量增加并且停留时间也相应延长。怎样才可以有效地改善空调房间存在的空气品质问题，已获得了各界的高度重视。采取通风换气，使室内获得足够的新鲜空气，是目前改善空气质量的最有效手段[10]。
2.2.3.各种新兴环保能源的利用
（1）采用天然气作为空调制冷设备的能源，天然气是继煤炭和石油之后的第三大常规能源，能够有效控制二氧化碳和二氧化硫的排放量，减少环境污染，对人体健康危害降低。使用天然气为能源的制冷空调市场前景广阔。
（2）利用各种可再生资源，如地源热、地下水、太阳能、自然风、海洋能等自然资源。地源热泵空调，是利用在冬季吸收土壤、地下水、地表水等天然资源的能量，向建筑提热能，夏天向天然资源释放热量，给建筑物供冷的一种高效节能的空调系统。主要用于居民住宅、别墅、学校以及商业建筑。太阳能空调利用太阳光的辐射为能源进行制冷工作。它的使用，弥补了供电不足的缺口，缓解了供电压力，也非常环保，不会带来传统电空调使用过程中所带来的城市热岛效应，并且由于太阳能空调的使用原理中并不包括氟利昂，就不会产生相关的有害物质致使大气环境遭受破坏。是名副其实的绿色节能空调。
2.2.4.新的环保节能技术应用
（1）蓄冷空调，一般主要利用冰和水两种介质。由于许多大城市白天供电紧张，为了限制用电，白天和晚上的电收费水准不同。一般晚上定点以后，电价低廉，就可以采用冰冷空调。此种空调正是在夜间电价低廉时，开启一部分制冷机组进行制冰，并储存总能量。在白天电价较贵的用电高峰期，再进行融冰用以提供低温水，释放出所储存的能量，用以应对大量的用电需求，这样的方式能够有效降低用电成本。
（2）热回收技术，是将空调机组排放出的热量进行回收，避免排风系统直接将空调房内的空气排出室外，造成能量的浪费。此种技术可以有效减少热污染，对热量的回收再利用，也获得了变废为宝的效果。
（3）低温地板辐射采暖技术，是在地板中直接埋设热水管用以加热地板，由地面辐射产生的热来加热室内空气。使用这种方式，常用热水做介质，辐射体表面温度不大于45摄氏度。低温地板辐射采暖过冲中，热量均以对流的方式向上方传递，致使室内温度下高于上，让人们感受到脚暖的同时保持头顶的凉爽，感觉舒适。低温地板辐射采暖，地板供热不仅舒适性和私密性好，而且能减少扬程，有效节省空间，方便计量改造，从各方面节省了维修费用。
2.3.空调系统技术进步和展望
（1）新风预处理系统分为热回收式新风预处理系统和除湿式新风预处理系统。热回收式新风预处理系统能回收排风中的能量对新风进行预处理，以降低系统的部分制冷量和除湿量，减小系统容量，用于温、湿度要求、湿度控制不太严格的场合。除湿式新风预处理系统避免了冷热抵消和低机器漏电的缺点，减少了制冷量，实现温、湿度独立控制，调节方便，精度高。
（2）冰蓄冷低温送风系统是将冰蓄冷系统与低温送风空调紧密结合在一起，将冰蓄冷技术与低温送风相结合，明显改善室内空气品质，有效节省能源。冰蓄冷低温送风系统能够降低室内的相对湿度，使人感觉更加舒适、凉爽和干燥。
（3）独立新风系统简称为 DOAS，其新风机组采用低温送风机组，将100％的新风直接送到空调房间，承担新风负荷和室内全部潜热负荷和部分显热负荷。其显冷设备均无回风系统，能大大提高建筑物的环境安全性而不会造成不同房间的污染传播：新风和排风之间采用全热交换器，能够降低空调能耗。
暖通空调系统的发展源自于建筑业，近年来飞速发展的建筑业带给空调制造业良好的发展机遇。在暖通空调制造中大力使用环保节能技术，是相关行业走向辉煌的必行之路。不断研究和发展新的环保节能技术，才能保证暖通空调系统与时俱进。
篇4：毕设谢辞部分
首先，我深深地感谢我的导师**教授。在两年的学习中，*老师给予我很多热情的鼓励和悉心的指导。本论文正是在他的指导和帮助下完成的。在论文选题、搜集数据和理论研究方面，*老师倾注了很多心血。他严谨的治学作风和渊博的学识将使我受益终生。我要感谢*省气象台的**总工程师。他为我们提供了一百二十年的*地气温数据。
同时，在一些气象专业问题上，我们也得到了他的指导和帮助。我真诚地感谢**教研室的老师和我的同学们。
篇5：毕设开题报告
毕设开题报告
姓名：xxx
学号：xxx
专业年级：xx级
指导教师：xxx
一、课题意义（包括课题的理论意义和现实意义）
中等生是在班级中成绩中等，平时表现不突出（既不特别优秀也不特别差），也没有突出特长吸引老师、家长注意的学生。单从心理健康教育这一点来说，中等生是学校家长和老师最需要关注的群体，其原因其实很简单：相对于优等生和后进生，中等生面临的升学压力和精神压力更大。他们是班级的主体，学习上有一定基础，将来班级升学率的高低主要取决于他们，所以老师对他们抱有极大的期望，同样家长对这部分学生也怀着极大的期望，往往在有意无意中给他们加压。而他们自己也同样怀着较大的希望，希望自己能不断进步，力争摆脱中等生的位置。为此他们往往表现得十分懂事，学习上特别刻苦用功，甚至废寝忘食。但由于学习基础、方法、能力和先天素质等多方面的原因，往往使得他们的学习效果欠佳，一次次冲击都不能如愿，甚至倒退，最终使他们彻底丧失了信心，把一切失败的根源都归结为一个字：笨，从而产生了严重的自卑心理以及其他常见的心理问题。
更要命的是，这些学生的性格往往内向，平时安分守已，表现良好。所以他们的心理问题更具有隐蔽性，不易被人发现，班主任老师为其表面现象所迷惑，再加上受“抓两头，带中间”的传统教育格局的影响，往往没有对中等生普遍存在的心理问题引起足够的认识和重视，更谈不上及时的心理疏导，导致这些学生的心理问题越来越严重，严重影响了他们的学习和生活。有极少数学生甚至发展成为精神病患者。
本论文在学生学习生活中常见的心理状态上，立足于中等生的常见心理问题，对不同性别、年级的中等生进行调查，根据其教师、家长的教育方法，研究对他们成长的影响，从而找到适合中等生的教育，促进青少年成长。
二、文献综述（包括：1、理论的渊源及演进过程2、国内外对本课题的研究现状和有待解决的问题3、本人对所查文献的评述等）
（一）理论渊源及其演进过程：
皮格马利翁效应，也有译“毕马龙效应”、“比马龙效应”，由美国著名心理学家罗森塔尔和雅格布森在小学教学上予以验证提出。亦称“罗森塔尔效应（robertrosenthaleffect）”或“期待效应”。这是一次期望心理实验。他们提供的名单纯粹是随便抽取的。他们通过“权威性的谎言”暗示教师，坚定教师对名单上学生的信心，虽然教师始终把这些名单藏在内心深处，但掩饰不住的热情仍然通过眼神、笑貌、音调滋润着这些学生的心田，实际上他们扮演了皮格马利翁的角色。学生潜移默化地受到影响，因此变得更加自信，奋发向上的激流在他们的血管中荡漾，于是他们在行动上就不知不觉地更加努力学习，结果就有了飞速的进步。
父母教养方式是父母的教养观念、教养行为及其对儿童的情感表现的一种组合方式。这种组合方式是相对稳定的，不随情境的改变而变化，它反映了亲子交往的实质。早在19世纪末，弗洛伊德就注意到了不同养育方式对孩子的影响，他对父母的角色做了简单的划分：父亲负责提供规则和纪律，母亲负责提供爱与温暖。50年代，parsons发展了弗洛伊德的观点，并把这个问题与家庭角色及性别特征联系起来，认为女性善于表达，情绪比较敏感，所以适于处理与孩子间的各种关系；而男性指导性强，负责制定规则更好。sears把这些思想与学习理论相结合，提出了教养方式中的两个重要概念：温暖和控制。以此为基础提出常见的三种教养方式：专制型、权威型、放纵型。
（二）国内外对本课题的研究现状：
关于学生教育方式的研究国内外许多专家学者从不同的角度、不同的层次，采取各种方法进行过多方面的相关探索和研究。学生教育方式研究所涉及对象非常宽泛，在年龄段的选择上从以中学生为主，逐渐扩大到小学生、初中生和高中生以及大学生。从人群的选择上，研究者选取了正常人，强迫症、神经症、焦虑症、抑郁症、精神分裂症、社交恐怖症患者，成年罪犯，少年犯，吸毒者等不同的人群探讨教育方式的.作用。教育方式研究领域从宏观、笼统走向微观、具体。研究者开始从宏观、笼统的理论上的评述逐步地通过多种实证研究探讨家教育方式对学生发展的各个方面具体的影响。在学生的应对方式问题上，很多研究表明良好的教育方式与学生积极的应对方式呈显著正相关。
中等生长期不能收到老师重视及家长的认可容易产生各种心理问题：
一、孤僻和抑郁心理状态
少数学生抑郁寡言心烦意乱，脑力迟钝，学习感到吃力，学习成绩也一直在中下游徘徊，对未来感到茫然而无信心，忧心忡忡，人际关系很差，不想与人说话。经过调查了解，我们发现，产生这种心理状态都是由各种主、客观因素引起的。其中以家庭变故和教育不当两种情况最为典型，对此，我们必须进行心理矫正。教师要主动找这些学生谈心，通过主题班会、集体活动等方式，有意调动其参与，并告诉他，产生此种环境并非自身的错误引起的，而是家庭和教师错误对待的结果，教育其勇于面对挫折，战胜消极情绪，克服自卑心理，以投入正常的学习生活中去。
二、对抗和逃避心理状态
在管理中，时常发现有极少数学生，长期由于家长或教师对其要求过份严厉，使其感到精神上或自卑上受到伤害，一种情绪上变得烦躁、抑郁、狂燥，经常与家长、老师发生激烈冲突，甚至伤人；另一种情况是逃避，诸如离家出走等。这种心理状态产生，主要是教育方法不当引起的。这就是要求家长和教师必须彻底反思自己的教育方式，坚持正面教育，要循循善诱，以情感人，注重平时教育，不要等问题发展到很严重时采取过激行为。同时，要教育和引导学生，按照中学生日常行为规范来严格要求自己，正确理解校长和教师的良苦用心，使其正确认识自我，正确认识他人，不致于采取极端行为。
三、焦虑、恐惧心理状态
这种心理状态的形成，主要是由于紧张的学习压力、社会压力、家庭压力和旧压力等因素引起的。尹某是高二一位女生，学习成绩较好，家长及学校对其期望较高，自己也希望高考时能考出好成绩。于是，她学习非常刻苦，平时除了学习还是学习，很少有其他活动，也不同学交流，生怕自己学习成绩会掉下来。由于过分的压力，使她成绩反而有所下降。她感到前途无望，整天胡思乱想，神经高度紧张，时常认为有人想谋害她，恐惧不安，经医院检查属轻度精神分裂。诸如类似的例子在高中学生中为数不少，这就给教育者提出了一个重要唯一的出路，社会主义现代化建设需要各种类型的人才，帮助其树立科学的世界观、人生观，学校要加大实施素质教育力度，切实减轻学生过重的学业负担，使其各方面素质得到全面提高。
四、嫉妒心理状态
嫉妒通俗说法就是所谓“红眼病”，这在学生中相当普遍，尤其在女同学中更是如此。当某些同学因表现好，成绩好，得到老师表扬，同学们尊重时，少数同学则会产生嫉妒心理。譬如想方设法贬低他人的优点和长处，想方设法抹去他人的成果，想方设法算计他从，甚至通过搜集他人的“隐私”将他人思想搞乱。他们总希望自己强于他人，而当他们不如别人时，他们会常常因嫉妒而产生敌意。当他们认为不被人喜欢、欣赏和尊重时就气急败坏等。嫉妒心理对学生的正常学习、生活干扰很大，因此，我们必须通过心理健康教育，使具有这种心理状态的人认识到，前途是光明的，道路是曲折的，命运只能靠自己把握，帮助他们树立积极向上的人生观，坚决克服其不良心态。
综上所诉，近年来国内外许多专家学者从多角度、多层次对教育方式进行过研究。关于教育方式的研究主要是涉及到学生身心发展的各方面，但是对于中等生的关注，就国内而言，还远远不够，特别是在教育事业比较落后的地区。教育是致力于培养大部分未成年人，而不是让少数人受到特别待遇，不论家庭教育还是学校教育。本研究就是力求在以往研究的基础上，从心理健康的角度对中等生的教育方式进行调查研究，找出中等生教育方式是否存在特殊性，并分析原因，提出对策，以求能对中等生的教育方式的改进有所帮助。
篇6：毕设谢辞部分
走的最快的总是时间，来不及感叹，在完成终稿的今天，在敲完最后一个句号的时刻，我的思想同周围凝固的热气一样停驻了，不知道是慰藉还是悲伤，大学四年的生活就这样结束了，而眼前的路还很长，虽然似乎有些迷茫，但我必须整理心情，背上行囊，坚定的踏上新的征程……
经过几个月的查资料，整理材料，写作论文，今天终于可以顺利的完成论文的最后的谢辞了，自己想想求学期间的点点滴滴历历涌上心头，时光匆匆飞逝，大学生活已接近尾声，四年多的努力与付出，随着本次论文的完成，将要划下完美的句号。
本论文设计是在朴桂林老师的悉心指导和严格要求下完成的，从课题选择到具体的写作过程，论文初稿与定稿无不凝聚着朴桂林老师的心血与汗水，在我的毕业设计期间。朴桂林老师为我提供了种种专业知识上的指导和一些富于创造性的建议，朴老师一丝不苟的作风，严谨求实的态度使我使我深受感动，没有这样的帮助、关怀和熏陶，我不会这么顺利的完成毕业设计。在此向朴桂林老师表示深深的感谢和崇高的敬意！
同时，论文的顺利完成，我还要感谢谢浩老师、张居兵老师、林福建老师以及陈丁南、潘伟林、王东东学长的关心和帮助，在整个的论文写作中，各位老师、学长、同学和朋友积极的帮助我查资料和提供有利于论文写作的建议和意见，在他们的帮助下，论文得以不断的完善。
感谢所有传授我知识的老师，是你们悉心教导使我有了良好的专业课知识，这也是论文得以完成的基础。
感谢我亲爱的同学们，感谢他（她）们对我的关怀和宽容，四年了，仿佛就在昨天。四年里，我们共同成长，共同进步。在这里，我祝愿我的每一位同学在以后的人生道路上一路走好！大学四年的生活是我迄今为止最快乐的生活，也将成为我人生最宝贵的记忆。
感谢我的父母和朋友，是你们默默地在背后给我鼓励，做我最坚强的后盾，让我可以无忧的完成大学学业，可以说没有你们，也就没有现在的我，在我烦躁不安的时候是你们给予我清凉的智慧泉水，在我得意而近乎忘形的时候是你们。
篇7：毕设致谢词
从最初开始准备论文到现在，几个月过去了。我很诧异地发现这几个月居然过去了，因为它曾经如此的漫长。
那时还是冬天，姐姐正要结婚。几句祝福的话好像是在敷衍，我放下电话，顾不上姐姐心里是什么滋味，就去站台检票，踏上了写论文的旅程。那时，心里只把论文当成是一个任务，早一天应付完就早一天自由，早一天去做属于自己的事情。去公司实习，去四川学易经，去山里跟大师体会生活，去踏踏实实地练武功，去山东看看姐夫长什么样，从此不会再有见鬼的学习压力了。
带着这样的心态，我开始了一段痛苦而无边的旅程。在我的心里，论文也就是几天的事情。可是我们是保研的学生，要写的认真而且优秀。所以我打算用一个月写完。
我的一个朋友说：“人生不如意十之八九，常看一二。”而对我来说，我的如意算盘好像从来就没打成过。最开始阅读相关文献，东拼西凑很快就做出文献综述，结果被两位老师批判的找不着北，只能压着烦躁的心，辨别哪些是滥竽充数的文章，听老师介绍如何寻找有价值的文献。历尽千辛万苦，终于找到了好的文献，然后发现那是外文版的，然后就对着外文傻眼。勉强看完文献就已经过了一个半月。
这几个月中，咖啡厅的几个员工非常开心，因为每天早晨他们还在收拾屋子的时候，我就去送钱了。那个咖啡厅灯光柔和，背景音乐也很轻缓。几乎每一周我都在那里看见了论文截稿的希望，然后在下一周又跑来冥思苦想，因为上周的框架又被闭了。
我爸爸经常打来电话，问我论文进展如何，催促我赶快写完论文然后去实习，见见世面。最初，我说很快就写完了；后来，我说还得个把月；再后来，我说：“爸，我是学生，我不是在写论文，我在学习如何写论文。何必着急写完呢。”
宿舍的哥们最初找工作，晚上回来我们一块打Dota，后来一块儿写论文，再后来，他们论文写完了，问我的进展如何，我说还没开始。他们笑了：“我们找工作的时候你写论文，我们写论文的时候你写论文，我们写完的时候你还没开始！你这几个月干什么了？”我也笑了，没说话，只是看着屏幕打字。
有个朋友在国外读书，她上学的时候，我说你回国了咱们见见面聊聊天。后来她回来了，我说你再等等，等我写完初稿我去找你。然后直到有一天，她说我下周就回内蒙去了，你到底要让我等多久？我看着屏幕上刚被原则性否定的所谓初稿，惭愧地，在心里说了句再见。
现在距答辩只有一周多了，路上遇见曾经合作过的队友们。根据曾经的交往，他们以为我连答辩的PPT都做好了。我笑着说：“快了，我还有两万多字就截稿了。”
我学过很多知识，思考过很多道理，可是不知道为什么我的'生活那么不如意，不知道为什么我的生活从来没有电影和小说中那么精彩。写论文的路上，没有生离死别，没有相爱却不能在一起之类的神话，没有野心和阴谋，没有难填的欲望，没有报效国家的豪情壮志，没有大舍大得的智慧。什么都没有，有的只是平凡。平凡的不能再平凡的平凡。
只是发现原来这就是我的生活。实习、易经、武功、山东、四川？他们都在吗？他们只在我的想象中存在。什么是实在的？我在学校，我在写论文，我在学习，我在做研究。
我想不经意间好像我开创了一个记录，我的论文指导老师是最多的。感谢崔巍老师和张龙老师。他们让我知道中国有人在认认真真地做研究，他们把我的心从虚幻中拉回到了现实，他们让我意识到我是学生，让我知道该怎么做好学生。
感谢林文老师，在我迷茫的时候从来没有逼我做任何工作，在我不求上进的时候没有责备我，在我不知所措的时候鼓励我坚持自己的看法。
感谢我的姐姐，在结婚这种重要时刻，我都逃走了，可是你安慰我说很开心。感谢小曦，你的陪伴，让我在烦躁的时候，没有离开电脑。感谢潇姐。
感谢黄颖学长，几年来每次做作业，都参考你的模板，毕设也不例外。
我不知道我能不能毕业，也不知道迎接我的是什么。可是，我感受到了我的生活，感谢我的生活。 《毕设致谢词》
篇8：外文翻译机械手
外文翻译机械手
毕业设计
文献翻译
院（系）名称 工学院机械系
专业名称 机械设计制造及其自动化
学生姓名
指导教师
周昕 杨汉嵩
03 月 10 日
机械手
摘要：机械手是近几十年发展起来的一种高科技自动化生产设备。工业机械手是工业机器人的一个重要分支。它的特点是可通过编程来完成各种预期的作业任务，在构造和性能上兼有人和机器各自的优点，尤其体现了人的智能和适应性。机械手作业的准确性和各种环境中完成作业的能力，在国民经济各领域有着广阔的发展前景。随着工业自动化的发展, 出现了数控加工中心,它在减轻工人的劳动强度的同时, 大大提高了劳动生产率。但数控加工中常见的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或传统继电器控制的半自动化装置。前者费时费工、效率低; 后者因设计复杂, 需较多继电器,接线繁杂, 易受车体振动干扰,而存在可靠性差、故障多、维修困难等问题。可编程序控制器PLC控制的上下料机械手控制系统动作简便、线路设计合理、具有较强的抗干扰能力, 保证了系统运行的可靠性,降低了维修率, 提高了工作效率。机械手技术涉及到力学、机械学、电气液压技术、自动控制技术、传感器技术和计算机技术等科学领域，是一门跨学科综合技术。
关键词：机械手，工业机器人，半自动化装置，编程序控制器
一、工业机械手的概述
机械手是一种能自动化定位控制并可重新编程序以变动的多功能机器，它有多个自由度，可用来搬运物体以完成在各个不同环境中工作。在工资水平较低的中国，塑料制品行业尽管仍属于劳动力密集型，机械手的使用已经越来越普及。那些电子和汽车业的欧美跨国公司很早就在它们设在中国的工厂中引进了自动化生产。但现在的变化是那些分布在工业密集的华南、华东沿海地区的中国本土塑料加工厂也开始对机械手表现出越来越浓厚的兴趣，因为他们要面对工人流失率高，以及为工人交工伤费带来的挑战。
随着我国工业生产的飞跃发展，特别是改革开发以后，自动化程度的迅速提高，实现工件的装卸、转向、输送或操作钎焊、喷枪、扳手等工具进行加工、装配等作业自化，已愈来愈引起我们重视。
机械手是模仿着人手的部分动作，按给定的程序、轨迹和要求实现自动抓取、搬运或操作的自动机械装置。
在现实生活中，你是否会发现这样一个问题。在机械工厂里，加工零件装料的时候是不是很烦的，劳动生产率不高，生产成本大，有时候还会发生一些人为事故，
导致加工者受伤。想想看用什么可以来代替呢，加工的时候只要有几个人巡视一下，且可以二十四个小时饱和运作，人行吗？回答是肯定的，但是机械手可以来代替它。
生产中应用机械手可以提高生产的自动化水平和劳动生产率;可以减轻劳动强度、保证产品质量、实现安全生产；尤其是在高温、高压、低温、低压、粉尘、易爆、有毒气体和放射性等恶劣的环境中能够代替人进行正常的工作。想到这里我就很想设计一个机械手，来用于生产实际中。
为什么选着设计机械手用气动来提供动力：气动机械手是指以压缩空气为动力源驱动的机械手。用气压驱动与其他能源驱动比较有以下优点：1.空气取之不竭，用过之后排入大气，不需要回收和处理，不污染环境。（环保的概念）2.空气的沾性很小，管路中压力损失也很小（一般气路阻力损失不到油路的千分之一），便于远距离输送。3.压缩空气的工作压力较低(一般为4～8公斤/每平方厘米)，因此对动元件的材质和制造精度要求可以降低。4.与液压传动相比，它的动作和反应都快，这是气动突出的优点之一。5.空气介质清洁，亦不会变质，管路不易堵塞。但是也有它美中不足的地方：1.由于空气的可压缩性，致使气动工作的稳定性差，因而造成执行机构运动速度和定为精度不易控制。2.由于使用气压较低，输出力不可能太大，为了增加输出力，必然使整个气动系统的结构尺寸加大。
用气压驱动与用其他能源驱动比较有以下优点：
空气取之不竭，用过之后排入大气，不需回收和处理，不污染环境。偶然的或少量的泄漏不致对生产发生严重的影响。
空气的粘性很小，管路中压力损失也就很小，便于远距离输送。
压缩空气的工作压力较低，因此对气动元件的材质和制造精度要求可以降低。一般说来，往复运动推力在1~2吨以下采用气动经济性较好。
与液压传动相比，它的动作和反应都快，这是气动的突出优点之一。
空气介质清洁，亦不会变质，管路不易堵塞。
它可安全地应用在易燃、易爆和粉尘大的场合。又便于实现过载自动保护. 二p机械手的组成
机械手的形式是多种多样的，有的较为简单，有的较为复杂，但基本的.组成形式是相同的，一般由执行机构、传动系统、控制系统和辅助装置组成。
1. 执行机构
机械手的执行机构，由手、手腕、手臂、支柱组成。手是抓取机构，用来夹紧
和松开工件，与人的手指相仿，能完成人手的类似动作。手腕是连接手指与手臂的元件，可以进行上下、左右和回转动作。简单的机械手可以没有手腕。支柱用来支撑手臂，也可以根据需要做成移动。
2. 传动系统
执行机构的动作要由传动系统来实现。常用机械手传动系统分机械传动、液压传动、气压传动和电力传动等几种形式。
3. 控制系统
机械手控制系统的主要作用是控制机械手按一定的程序、方向、位置、速度进行动作，简单的机械手一般不设置专用的控制系统，只采用行程开关、继电器、控制阀及电路便可实现动传动系统的控制，使执行机构按要求进行动作．动作复杂的机械手则要采用可编程控制器、微型计算机进行控制。
三p 机械手的分类和特点
机械手一般分为三类：第一类是不需要人工操作的通用机械手。它是一种独立的不附属于某一主机的装置。它可以根据任务的需要编制程序，以完成各项规定的操作。它的特点是具备普通机械的性能之外，还具备通用机械、记忆智能的三元机械。第二类是需要人工才做的，称为操作机。它起源于原子、军事工业，先是通过操作机来完成特定的作业，后来发展到用无线电讯号操作机来进行探测月球等。工业中采用的锻造操作机也属于这一范畴。第三类是用专用机械手，主要附属于自动机床或自动线上，用以解决机床上下料和工件送。这种机械手在国外称为
“Mechanical Hand”，它是为主机服务的，由主机驱动；除少数以外，工作程序一般是固定的，因此是专用的。 主要特点：
(1) 机械手（上下料机械手、装配机械手、搬运机械手、堆垛机械手、助力机械手、真空搬运机、真空吸吊机、省力吊具、气动平衡器等）。
(2) 悬臂起重机（悬臂吊、电动环链葫芦吊、气动平衡吊等）
(3) 导轨式搬运系统（悬挂轨道、轻型轨道、单梁起重机、双梁起重机）
(4) 工业机械手的应用
机械手是在机械化、自动化生产过程中发展起来的一种新型装置。近年来，随着电子技术特别是电子计算机的广泛应用，机器人的研制和生产已成为高技术领域内迅速发展起来的一门新兴技术，它更加促进了机械手的发展，使得机械手能更好
地实现与机械化和自动化的有机结合。
机械手虽然目前还不如人手那样灵活，但它具有能不断重复工作和劳动、不知疲劳、不怕危险、抓举重物的力量比人手大等特点，因此，机械手已受到许多部门的重视，并越来越广泛地得到了应用，例如：
(1) 机床加工工件的装卸，特别是在自动化车床、组合机床上使用较为普遍。
(2) 在装配作业中应用广泛，在电子行业中它可以用来装配印制电路板，在机械行业中它可以用来组装零部件。
(3) 可在劳动条件差，单调重复易子疲劳的工作环境工作，以代替人的劳动。
(4) 可在危险场合下工作，如军工品的装卸、危险品及有害物的搬运等。
(5) 宇宙及海洋的开发。
(6) 军事工程及生物医学方面的研究和试验。 助力机械手:又称平衡器、平衡吊、省力吊具、手动移载机等，是一种无重力化手动承载系统，一种新颖的、用于物料搬运时省力化操作的助力设备,属于一种非标设计的系列化产品。针对客户应用需求，量身定制的个案创作。
一种模拟人手操作的自动机械，它可按固定程序抓取p搬运物件或操持工具完成某些特定操作。应用机械手可以代替人从事单调p重复或繁重的体力劳动，实现生产的机械化和自动化，代替人在有害环境下的手工操作，改善劳动条件，保证人身安全。20世纪40年代后期，美国在原子能实验中，首先采用机械手搬运放射性材料，人在安全室操纵机械手进行各种操作和实验。50年代以后，机械手逐步推广到工业生产部门，用于在高温p污染严重的地方取放工件和装卸材料，也作为机床的辅助装置在自动机床p自动生产线和加工中心中应用，完成上下料或从刀库中取放刀具并按固定程序更换刀具等操作。机械手主要由手部机构和运动机构组成。手部机构随使用场合和操作对象而不同，常见的有夹持p托持和吸附等类型。运动机构一般由液压p气动p电气装置驱动。机械手可独立地实现伸缩p旋转和N降等运动，一般有2～3个自由度。机械手广泛用于机械u造p冶金p轻工和原子能等部门。
能模仿人手和臂的某些动作功能，用以按固定程序抓取、搬运物件或操作工具的自动操作装置。它可代替人的繁重劳动以实现生产的机械化和自动化，能在有害环境下操作以保护人身安全，因而广泛应用于机械制造、冶金、电子、轻工和原子能等部门。 机械手通常用作机床或其他机器的附加装置，如在自动机床或自动生
产线上装卸和传递工件，在加工中心中更换刀具等，一般没有独立的控制装置。有些操作装置需要由人直接操纵，如用于原子能部门操持危险物品的主从式操作手也常称为机械手。
机械手主要由手部和运动机构组成。手部是用来抓持工件（或工具）的部件，根据被抓持物件的形状、尺寸、重量、材料和作业要求而有多种结构形式，如夹持型、托持型和吸附型等。运动机构，使手部完成各种转动（摆动）、移动或复合运动来实现规定的动作，改变被抓持物件的位置和姿势......
机械手是在自动化生产过程中使用的一种具有抓取和移动工件功能的自动化装置，它是在机械化、自动化生产过程中发展起来的一种新型装置。近年来，随着电子技术特别是电子计算机的广泛应用，机器人的研制和生产已成为高技术领域内迅速发展起来的一门新兴技术，它更加促进了机械手的发展，使得机械手能更好地实现与机械化和自动化的有机结合。机械手能代替人类完成危险、重复枯燥的工作，减轻人类劳动强度，提高劳动生产力。机械手越来越广泛的得到了应用，在机械行业中它可用于零部件组装 ，加工工件的搬运、装卸，特别是在自动化数控机床、组合机床上使用更普遍。目前，机械手已发展成为柔性制造系统FMS和柔性制造单元FMC中一个重要组成部分。把机床设备和机械手共同构成一个柔性加工系统或柔性制造单元，它适应于中、小批量生产，可以节省庞大的工件输送装置，结构紧凑，而且适应性很强。当工件变更时，柔性生产系统很容易改变，有利于企业不断更新适销对路的品种，提高产品质量，更好地适应市场竞争的需要。而目前我国的工业机器人技术及其工程应用的水平和国外比还有一定的距离，应用规模和产业化水平低，机械手的研究和开发直接影响到我国自动化生产水平的提高，从经济上、技术上考虑都是十分必要的。因此，进行机械手的研究设计是非常有意义的。
Manipulator
Abstract： Robot developed in recent decades as high-tech automated production equipment. Industrial robot is an important branch of industrial robots. It features can be programmed to perform tasks in a variety of expectations, in both structure and performance advantages of their own people and machines, in particular, reflects the people's intelligence and adaptability. The accuracy of robot operations and a variety of environments the ability to complete the work in the field of national economy and there are broad prospects for development. With the development of industrial automation, there has been CNC machining center, it is in reducing labor intensity, while greatly improved labor productivity. However, the upper and lower common in CNC machining processes material, usually still use manual or traditional relay-controlled semi-automatic device. The former time-consuming and labor intensive, inefficient; the latter due to design complexity, require more relays, wiring complexity, vulnerability to body vibration interference, while the existence of poor reliability, fault more maintenance problems and other issues. Programmable Logic Controller PLC-controlled robot control system for materials up and down movement is simple, circuit design is reasonable, with a strong anti-jamming capability, ensuring the system's reliability, reduced maintenance rate, and improve work efficiency. Robot technology related to mechanics, mechanics, electrical hydraulic technology, automatic control technology, sensor technology and computer technology and other fields of science, is a cross-disciplinary integrated technology.
Keywords： Mechanical hand, industrial robots, semi automatic device, the programmable controller
First, an overview of industrial manipulator
Robot is a kind of positioning control can be automated and can be re-programmed to change in multi-functional machine, which has multiple degrees of freedom can be used to carry an object in order to complete the work in different environments. Low wages in China, plastic products industry, although still a labor-intensive, mechanical hand use has become increasingly popular. Electronics and automotive industries that Europe and the United States multinational companies very early in their factories in China, the introduction of automated production. But now the changes are those found in industrial-intensive South China, East China's coastal areas,
local plastic processing plants have also emerged in mechanical watches began to become increasingly interested in, because they have to face a high turnover rate of workers, as well as for the workers to pay work-related injuries fee challenges.
With the rapid development of China's industrial production, especially the reform and opening up after the rapid increase in the degree of automation to achieve the workpiece handling, steering, transmission or operation of brazing, spray gun, wrenches and other tools for processing and assembly operations since, which has more and more attracted our attention.
Robot is to imitate the manual part of the action, according to a given program, track and requirements for automatic capture, handling or operation of the automatic mechanical devices.
In real life, you will find this a problem. In the machine shop, the processing of parts loading time is not annoying, and labor productivity is not high, the cost of production major, and sometimes man-made incidents will occur, resulting in processing were injured. Think about what could replace it with the processing time of a tour as long as there are a few people, and can operate 24 hours saturated human right? The answer is yes, but the robot can come to replace it.
Production of mechanical hand can increase the automation level of production and labor productivity; can reduce labor intensity, ensuring product quality, to achieve safe production; particularly in the high-temperature, high pressure, low temperature, low pressure, dust, explosive, toxic and radioactive gases such as poor environment can replace the normal working people. Here I would like to think of designing a robot to be used in actual production.
Why would a robot designed to provide a pneumatic power: pneumatic robot refers to the compressed air as power source-driven robot. With pressure-driven and other energy-driven comparison have the following advantages: 1. Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere,
does not require recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment. (Concept of environmental protection) 2. Air stick is small, the pipeline pressure loss is small (typically less than asphalt gas path pressure drop of one-thousandth), to facilitate long-distance transport. 3. Compressed air of the working pressure is low (usually 4 to 8 kg / per square centimeter), and therefore moving the material components and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered. 4. With the hydraulic transmission, compared to its faster action and reaction, which is one of the advantages pneumatic outstanding. 5. The air cleaner media, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. But there are also places where it fly in the ointment:
1. As the compressibility of air, resulting in poor aerodynamic stability of the work, resulting in the implementing agencies as the precision of the velocity and not easily controlled. 2. As the use of low atmospheric pressure, the output power can not be too large; in order to increase the output power is bound to the structure of the entire pneumatic system size increased.
With pneumatic drive and compare with other energy sources drive has the following advantages:
Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere, without recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment. Accidental or a small amount of leakage would not be a serious impact on production.
Viscosity of air is small, the pipeline pressure loss also is very small, easy long-distance transport.
The lower working pressure of compressed air, pneumatic components and therefore the material and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered. In general, reciprocating thrust in 1 to 2 tons pneumatic economy is better.
Compared with the hydraulic transmission, and its faster action and reaction, which is one of the outstanding merits of pneumatic.
Clean air medium, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. It can be safely used in flammable, explosive and the dust big occasions.
Also easy to realize automatic overload protection.
Second, the composition, mechanical hand
Robot in the form of a variety of forms, some relatively simple, some more complicated, but the basic form is the same as the composition of the , Usually by the implementing agencies, transmission systems, control systems and auxiliary devices composed.
1. Implementing agencies
Manipulator executing agency by the hands, wrists, arms, pillars. Hands are crawling institutions, is used to clamp and release the workpiece, and similar to human fingers, to complete the staffing of similar actions. Wrist and fingers and the arm connecting the components can be up and down, left, and rotary movement. A simple mechanical hand can not wrist. Pillars used to support the arm can also be made mobile as needed.
2. Transmission
The actuator to be achieved by the transmission system. Sub-transmission system commonly used manipulator mechanical transmission, hydraulic transmission, pneumatic and electric power transmission and other drive several forms.
3. Control System
Manipulator control system's main role is to control the robot according to certain procedures, direction, position, speed of action, a simple mechanical hand is generally not set up a dedicated control system, using only trip switches, relays, control valves and circuits can be achieved dynamic drive system control, so that implementing agencies according to the requirements of action. Action will have to use complex programmable robot controller, the micro-computer control.
Three, mechanical hand classification and characteristics
Robots are generally divided into three categories: the first is the general machinery does not require manual hand. It is an independent not affiliated with a particular host device. It can be programmed according to the needs
of the task to complete the operation of the provisions. It is characterized with ordinary mechanical performance, also has general machinery, memory, intelligence ternary machinery. The second category is the need to manually do it, called the operation of aircraft. It originated in the atom, military industry, first through the operation of machines to complete a particular job, and later developed to operate using radio signals to carry out detecting machines such as the Moon. Used in industrial manipulator also fall into this category. The third category is dedicated manipulator, the main subsidiary of the automatic machines or automatic lines, to solve the machine up and down the workpiece material and delivery. This mechanical hand in foreign countries known as the “Mechanical Hand”, which is the host of services, from the host-driven; exception of a few outside the working procedures are generally fixed, and therefore special.
Main features:
First, mechanical hand (the upper and lower material robot, assembly robot, handling robot, stacking robot, help robot, vacuum handling machines, vacuum suction crane, labor-saving spreader, pneumatic balancer, etc.).
Second, cantilever cranes (cantilever crane, electric chain hoist crane, air balance the hanging, etc.)
Third, rail-type transport system (hanging rail, light rail, single girder cranes, double-beam crane)
Four, industrial machinery, application of hand
Manipulator in the mechanization and automation of the production process developed a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.
Although the robot is not as flexible as staff, but it has to the continuous duplication of work and labor, I do not know fatigue, not afraid of danger,
the power snatch weight characteristics when compared with manual large, therefore, mechanical hand has been of great importance to many sectors, and increasingly has been applied widely, for example:
(1) Machining the workpiece loading and unloading, especially in the automatic lathe, combination machine tool use is more common.
(2) In the assembly operations are widely used in the electronics industry, it can be used to assemble printed circuit boards, in the machinery industry It can be used to assemble parts and components.
(3) The working conditions may be poor, monotonous, repetitive easy to sub-fatigue working environment to replace human labor.
(4) May be in dangerous situations, such as military goods handling, dangerous goods and hazardous materials removal and so on.
(5) Universe and ocean development.
(6), military engineering and biomedical research and testing.
Help mechanical hands: also known as the balancer, balance suspended, labor-saving spreader, manual Transfer machine is a kind of weightlessness of manual load system, a novel, time-saving technology for material handling operations booster equipment, belonging to kinds of non-standard design of series products. Customer application needs, creating customized cases. Manual operation of a simulation of the automatic machinery, it can be a fixed program draws p handling objects or perform household tools to accomplish certain specific actions. Application of robot can replace the people engaged in monotonous p repetitive or heavy manual labor, the mechanization and automation of production, instead of people in hazardous environments manual operation, improving working conditions and ensure personal safety. The late 20th century, 40, the United States atomic energy experiments, the first use of radioactive material handling robot, human robot in a safe room to manipulate various operations and experimentation. 50 years later, manipulator and gradually extended to industrial production sector, for the temperatures, polluted areas, and loading and unloading to
take place the work piece material, but also as an auxiliary device in automatic machine tools, machine tools, automatic production lines and processing center applications, the completion of the upper and lower material, or From the library take place knife knife and so on according to fixed procedures for the replacement operation. Robot body mainly by the hand and sports institutions. Agencies with the use of hands and operation of objects of different occasions, often there are clamping p support and adsorption type of care. Movement organs are generally hydraulic pneumatic p p electrical device drivers. Manipulator can be achieved independently retractable p rotation and lifting movements, generally 2 to 3 degrees of freedom. Robots are widely used in metallurgical industry, machinery manufacture, light industry and atomic energy sectors.
Can mimic some of the staff and arm motor function, a fixed procedure for the capture, handling objects or operating tools, automatic operation device. It can replace human labor in order to achieve the production of heavy mechanization and automation that can operate in hazardous environments to protect the personal safety, which is widely used in machinery manufacturing, metallurgy, electronics, light industry and nuclear power sectors. Mechanical hand tools or other equipment commonly used for additional devices, such as the automatic machines or automatic production line handling and transmission of the workpiece, the replacement of cutting tools in machining centers, etc. generally do not have a separate control device. Some operating devices require direct manipulation by humans; such as the atomic energy sector performs household hazardous materials used in the master-slave manipulator is also often referred to as mechanical hand. Manipulator mainly by hand and sports institutions. Task of hand is holding the workpiece (or tool) components, according to grasping objects by shape, size, weight, material and operational requirements of a variety of structural forms, such as clamp type, type and adsorption-based care such as holding. Sports organizations, so that the completion of a variety of
hand rotation (swing), mobile or compound movements to achieve the required action, to change the location of objects by grasping and posture.
Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation. Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity. Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used. At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC. The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable. When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition. At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary. Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.
篇9：毕业设计外文翻译
毕业设计外文翻译
外文原文
Overview of JSP Technology
Benefits of JSP
JSP pages are translated into servlets. So, fundamentally, any task JSP pages can perform could also be accomplished by servlets. However, this underlying equivalence does not mean that servlets and JSP pages are equally appropriate in all scenarios. The issue is not the power of the technology, it is the convenience, productivity, and maintainability of one or the other. After all, anything you can do on a particular computer platform in the Java programming language you could also do in assembly language. But it still matters which you choose.
JSP provides the following benefits over servlets alone:
• It is easier to write and maintain the HTML. Your static code is ordinary HTML: no extra backslashes, no double quotes, and no lurking Java syntax.
• You can use standard Web-site development tools. Even HTML tools that know nothing about JSP can be used because they simply ignore the JSP tags.
• You can divide up your development team. The Java programmers can work on the dynamic code. The Web developers can concentrate on the presentation layer. On large projects, this division is very important. Depending on the size of your team and the complexity of your project, you can enforce a weaker or stronger separation between the static HTML and the dynamic content.
Now, this discussion is not to say that you should stop using servlets and use only JSP instead. By no means. Almost all projects will use both. For some requests in your project, you will use servlets. For others, you will use JSP. For still others, you will combine them with the MVC architecture . You want the appropriate tool for the job, and servlets, by themselves, do not complete your toolkit.
Advantages of JSP Over Competing Technologies
A number of years ago, Marty was invited to attend a small 20-person industry roundtable discussion on software technology. Sitting in the seat next to Marty was James Gosling, inventor of the Java programming language. Sitting several seats away was a high-level manager from a very large software company in Redmond, Washington. During the discussion, the moderator brought up the subject of Jini, which at that time was a new Java technology. The moderator asked the manager what he thought of it, and the manager responded that it was too early to tell, but that it seemed to be an excellent idea. He went on to say that they would keep an eye on it, and if it seemed to be catching on, they would follow his company's usual “embrace and extend” strategy. At this point, Gosling lightheartedly interjected “You mean disgrace and distend.”
Now, the grievance that Gosling was airing was that he felt that this company would take technology from other companies and suborn it for their own purposes. But guess what? The shoe is on the other foot here. The Java community did not invent the idea of designing pages as a mixture of static HTML and dynamic code marked with special tags. For example, ColdFusion did it years earlier. Even ASP (a product from the very software company of the aforementioned manager) popularized this approach before JSP came along and decided to jump on the bandwagon. In fact, JSP not only adopted the general idea, it even used many of the same special tags as ASP did.
So, the question becomes: why use JSP instead of one of these other technologies? Our first response is that we are not arguing that everyone should. Several of those other technologies are quite good and are reasonable options in some situations. In other situations, however, JSP is clearly better. Here are a few of the reasons.
Versus .NET and Active Server Pages (ASP)
.NET is well-designed technology from Microsoft. ASP.NET is the part that directly competes with servlets and JSP. The advantages of JSP are twofold.
First, JSP is portable to multiple operating systems and Web servers; you aren't locked into deploying on Windows and IIS. Although the core .NET platform runs on a few non-Windows platforms, the ASP part does not. You cannot expect to deploy serious ASP.NET applications on multiple servers and operating systems. For some applications, this difference does not matter. For others, it matters greatly.
Second, for some applications the choice of the underlying language matters greatly. For example, although .NET's C# language is very well designed and is similar to Java, fewer programmers are familiar with either the core C# syntax or the many auxiliary libraries. In addition, many developers still use the original version of ASP. With this version, JSP has a clear advantage for the dynamic code. With JSP, the dynamic part is written in Java, not VBScript or another ASP-specific language, so JSP is more powerful and better suited to complex applications that require reusable components.
You could make the same argument when comparing JSP to the previous version of ColdFusion; with JSP you can use Java for the “real code” and are not tied to a particular server product. However, the current release of ColdFusion is within the context of a J2EE server, allowing developers to easily mix ColdFusion and servlet/JSP code.
Versus PHP
PHP (a recursive acronym for “PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor”) is a free, open-source, HTML-embedded scripting language that is somewhat similar to both ASP and JSP. One advantage of JSP is that the dynamic part is written in Java, which already has an extensive API for networking, database access, distributed objects, and the like, whereas PHP requires learning an entirely new, less widely used language. A second advantage is that JSP is much more widely supported by tool and server vendors than is PHP.
Versus Pure Servlets
JSP doesn't provide any capabilities that couldn't, in principle, be accomplished with servlets. In fact, JSP documents are automatically translated into servlets behind the scenes. But it is more convenient to write (and to modify!) regular HTML than to use a zillion println statements to generate the HTML. Plus, by separating the presentation from the content, you can put different people on different tasks: your Web page design experts can build the HTML by using familiar tools and either leave places for your servlet programmers to insert the dynamic content or invoke the dynamic content indirectly by means of XML tags.
Does this mean that you can just learn JSP and forget about servlets? Absolutely not! JSP developers need to know servlets for four reasons:
1. JSP pages get translated into servlets. You can't understand how JSP works without understanding servlets.
2. JSP consists of static HTML, special-purpose JSP tags, and Java code. What kind of Java code? Servlet code! You can't write that code if you don't understand servlet programming.
3. Some tasks are better accomplished by servlets than by JSP. JSP is good at generating pages that consist of large sections of fairly well structured HTML or other character data. Servlets are better for generating binary data, building pages with highly variable structure, and performing tasks (such as redirection) that involve little or no output.
4. Some tasks are better accomplished by a combination of servlets and JSP than by either servlets or JSP alone.
Versus JavaScript
JavaScript, which is completely distinct from the Java programming language, is normally used to dynamically generate HTML on the client, building parts of the Web page as the browser loads the document. This is a useful capability and does not normally overlap with the capabilities of JSP (which runs only on the server). JSP pages still include SCRIPT tags for JavaScript, just as normal HTML pages do. In fact, JSP can even be used to dynamically generate the JavaScript that will be sent to the client. So, JavaScript is not a competing technology; it is a complementary one.
It is also possible to use JavaScript on the server, most notably on Sun ONE (formerly iPlanet), IIS, and BroadVision servers. However, Java is more powerful, flexible, reliable, and portable.
Versus WebMacro or Velocity
JSP is by no means perfect. Many people have pointed out features that could be improved. This is a good thing, and one of the advantages of JSP is that the specification is controlled by a community that draws from many different companies. So, the technology can incorporate improvements in successive releases.
However, some groups have developed alternative Java-based technologies to try to address these deficiencies. This, in our judgment, is a mistake. Using a third-party tool like Apache Struts that augments JSP and servlet technology is a good idea when that tool adds sufficient benefit to compensate for the additional complexity. But using a nonstandard tool that tries to replace JSP is a bad idea. When choosing a technology, you need to weigh many factors: standardization, portability, integration, industry support, and technical features. The arguments for JSP alternatives have focused almost exclusively on the technical features part. But portability, standardization, and integration are also very important. For example, the servlet and JSP specifications define a standard directory structure for Web applications and provide standard files (.war files) for deploying Web applications. All JSP-compatible servers must support these standards. Filters can be set up to apply to any number of servlets or JSP pages, but not to nonstandard resources. The same goes for Web application security settings.
Besides, the tremendous industry support for JSP and servlet technology results in improvements that mitigate many of the criticisms of JSP. For example, the JSP Standard Tag Library and the JSP 2.0 expression language address two of the most well-founded criticisms: the lack of good iteration constructs and the difficulty of accessing dynamic results without using either explicit Java code or verbose jsp:useBean elements.
10.4 Misconceptions About JSP
Forgetting JSP Is Server-Side Technology
Here are some typical questions Marty has received (most of them repeatedly).
• Our server is running JDK 1.4. So, how do I put a Swing component in a JSP page?
• How do I put an image into a JSP page? I do not know the proper Java I/O commands to read image files.
• Since Tomcat does not support JavaScript, how do I make images that are highlighted when the user moves the mouse over them?
• Our clients use older browsers that do not understand JSP. What should we do?
• When our clients use “View Source” in a browser, how can I prevent them from seeing the JSP tags?
All of these questions are based upon the assumption that browsers know something about the server-side process. But they do not. Thus:
• For putting applets with Swing components into Web pages, what matters is the browser's Java version―the server's version is irrelevant. If the browser supports the Java 2 platform, you use the normal APPLET (or Java plug-in) tag and would do so even if you were using non-Java technology on the server.
• You do not need Java I/O to read image files; you just put the image in the directory for Web resources (i.e., two levels up from WEB-INF/classes) and output a normal IMG tag.
• You create images that change under the mouse by using client-side JavaScript, referenced with the SCRIPT tag; this does not change just because the server is using JSP.
• Browsers do not “support” JSP at all―they merely see the output of the JSP page. So, make sure your JSP outputs HTML compatible with the browser, just as you would do with static HTML pages.
• And, of course you need not do anything to prevent clients from seeing JSP tags; those tags are processed on the server and are not part of the output that is sent to the client.
Confusing Translation Time with Request Time
A JSP page is converted into a servlet. The servlet is compiled, loaded into the server's memory, initialized, and executed. But which step happens when? To answer that question, remember two points:
• The JSP page is translated into a servlet and compiled only the first time it is accessed after having been modified.
• Loading into memory, initialization, and execution follow the normal rules for servlets.
Table 1 gives some common scenarios and tells whether or not each step occurs in that scenario. The most frequently misunderstood entries are highlighted. When referring to the table, note that servlets resulting from JSP pages use the _jspService method (called for both GET and POST requests), not doGet or doPost. Also, for initialization, they use the jspInit method, not the init method.
Table 1. JSP Operations in Various Scenarios
JSP page translated into servlet Servlet compiled Servlet loaded into server's memory jspInit called _jspService called
Page first written
Request 1 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Request 2 No No No No Yes
Server restarted
Request 3 No No Yes Yes Yes
Request 4 No No No No Yes
Page modified
Request 5 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Request 6 No No No No Yes
中文翻译
JSP技术概述
一、JSP的好处
JSP页面最终会转换成servler。因而，从根本上，JSP页面能够执行的任何任务都可以用servler来完成。然而，这种底层的等同性并不意味着servler和JSP页面对于所有的情况都等同适用。问题不在于技术的能力，而是二者在便利性、生产率和可维护性上的不同。毕竟，在特定平台上能够用Java编程语言完成的事情，同样可以用汇编语言来完成，但是选择哪种语言依旧十分重要。
和单独使用servler相比，JSP提供下述好处：
JSP中HTML的编写与维护更为简单。JSP中可以使用常规的HTML：没有额外的反斜杠，没有额外的双引号，也没有暗含的Java语法。
能够使用标准的网站开发工具。即使对那些对JSP一无所知的HTML工具，我们也可以使用，因为它们会忽略JSP标签（JSP tags）。
可以对开发团队进行划分。Java程序员可以致力于动态代码。Web开发人员可以将经理集中在表示层（presentation layer）上。对于大型的项目，这种划分极为重要。依据开发团队的大小，及项目的复杂程度，可以对静态HTML和动态内容进行弱分离（weaker separation）和强分离（stronger separation）。
在此，这个讨论并不是让您停止使用servlets，只使用JSP。几乎所有的项目都会同时用到这两种技术。针对项目中的某些请求，您可能会在MVC构架下组合使用这两项技术。我们总是希望用适当的工具完成相对应的工作，仅仅是servlet并不能填满您的工具箱。
二、JSP相对于竞争技术的优势
许多年前，Marty受到邀请,参加一个有关软件技术的小型(20个人)研讨会.做在Marty旁边的人是James Gosling--- Java编程语言的发明者。隔几个位置,是来自华盛顿一家大型软件公司的高级经理。在讨论过程中,研讨会的主席提出了Jini的议题,这在当时是一项新的Java技术.主席向该经理询问他的想法.他继续说,他们会持续关注这项技术,如果这项技术变得流行起来,他们会遵循公司的“接受并扩充(embrace and extend)”的策略.此时, Gosling随意地插话说“你的意思其实就是不接受且不扩充(disgrace and distend)。”
在此, Gosling的抱怨显示出，他感到这个公司会从其他公司那里拿走技术,用于他们自己的目的.但你猜这次怎么样?这次鞋子穿在了另一只脚上。Java社团没有发明这一思想----将页面设计成由静态HTML和用特殊标签标记的动态代码混合组成.。ColdFusion多年前就已经这样做了。甚至ASP(来自于前述经理所在公司的一项产品)都在JSP出现之前推广了这种方式。实际上,JSP不只采用了这种通用概念,它甚至使用许多和ASP相同的特殊标签。
因此,问题变成:为什么使用JSP,而不使用其他技术呢?我们的第一反应是我们不是在争论所有的人应该做什么。其他这些技术中,有一些也很不错,在某些情况下也的确是合情合理的选择.然而,在其他情形中,JSP明显要更好一些。下面给出几个理由。
与.NET和Active Server Pages (ASP)相比
.NET是Microsoft精心设计的一项技术。ASP.NET是与servlets和JSP直接竞争的技术。JSP的优势体现在两个方面。
首先,JSP可以移植到多种操作系统和Web服务器,您不必仅仅局限于部署在Windows 和IIS上尽管核心.NET平台可以在好几种非Windows平台上运行，但ASP这一部分不可以。您不能期望可以将重要的ASP.NET应用部署到多种服务器和操作系统。对于某些应用，这种差异没有什么影响。但有些应用，这种差异却非常重要。
其次，对于某些应用，底层语言的选择至关重要。例如，尽管.NET的C#语言设计优良，且和Java类似，但熟悉核心C#语法和众多工具库的程序员很少。此外,许多开发者依旧使用最初版本的ASP。相对于这个版本,JSP在动态代码方面拥有明显的优势。使用JSP,动态部分是用Java编写的,而非VBScript过其他ASP专有的语言,因此JSP更为强劲,更适合于要求组件重用的复杂应用。
当将JSP与之前版本的ColdFusion对比时，您可能会得到相同的结论。应用JSP，您可以使用Java编写“真正的代码”，不必依赖于特定的服务器产品。然而，当前版本的ColdFusion满足J2EE服务器的环境，允许开发者容易的混合使用ColdFusion和Servlet/JSP代码。
与PHP相比
PHP（“PHP：Hypertext Preprocessor”的递归字母缩写词）是免费的、开放源代码的、HTML嵌入其中的脚本语言，与ASP和JSP都有某种程度的类似。JSP的一项优势是动态部分用Java编写，而Java已经在联网、数据库访问、分布式对象等方面拥有广泛的API，而PHP需要学习全新的、应用相对广泛的语言。JSP的第二项优势是，和PHP相比，JSP拥有极为广泛的工具和服务器提供商的支持。
与纯Servlet相比
原则上，JSP并没有提供Servlet不能完成的功能。实际上，JSP文档在后台被自动转换成Servlet。但是编写（和修改）常规的HTML，要比无数println语句生成HTML要方便得多。另外，通过将表示与内容分离，可以为不同的人分配不同的任务：网页设计人员使用熟悉的工具构建HTML，要么为Servlet程序员留出空间插入动态内容，要么通过XML标签间接调用动态内容。
这是否表示您只可以学习JSP，将Servlet丢到一边呢？当然不是！由于以下4种原因，JSP开发人员需要了解Servlet：
（1）JSP页面会转换成Servlet。不了解Servlet就无法知道JSP如何工作。
（2）JSP由静态HTML、专用的JSP标签和Java代码组成。哪种类型的Java代码呢？当然是Servlet代码！如果不了解Servlet编程，那么就无法编写这种代码。
（3）一些任务用Servlet完成比用JSP来完成要好。JSP擅长生成由大量组织有序的结构化HTML或其他字符数据组成的页面。Servlet擅长生成二进制数据，构建结构多样的页面，以及执行输出很少或者没有输出的任务（比如重定向）。
（4）有些任务更适合于组合使用Servlet和JSP来完成，而非单独使用Servlet或JSP。
与JavaScript相比
JavaScript和Java编程语言完全是两码事，前者一般用于在客户端动态生成HTML，在浏览器载入文档时构建网页的部分内容。这是一项有用的功能，一般与JSP的功能（只在服务器端运行）并不发生重叠。和常规HTML页面一样，JSP页面依旧可以包括用于JavaScript的SCRIPT标签。实际上，JSP甚至能够用来动态生成发送到客户端的JavaScript。因此，JavaScript不是一项竞争技术，它是一项补充技术。
JavaScript也可以用在服务器端，最因人注意的是SUN ONE（以前的iPlanet）、IIS和BroadVision服务器。然而，Java更为强大灵活、可靠且可移植。
与WebMacro和Velocity相比
JSP决非完美。许多人都曾指出过JSP中能够改进的'功能。这是一件好事，JSP的优势之一是该规范由许多不同公司组成的社团控制。因此，在后续版本中，这项技术能够得到协调的改进。
但是，一些组织已经开发出了基于Java的替代技术，试图弥补这些不足。据我们的判断，这样做是错误的。使用扩充JSP和Servlet技术的第三方工具，如Apache Structs，是一种很好的思路，只要该工具带来的好处能够补偿工具带来的额外复杂性。但是，试图使用非标准的工具代替JSP则不理想。在选择一项技术时，需要权衡许多方面的因素：标准化、可移植性、集成性、行业支持和技术特性。对于JSP替代技术的争论几乎只是集中在技术特性上，而可移植性、标准化和集成性也十分重要。例如，Servlet和JSP规范为Web应用定义了一个标准的目录结构，并提供用于部署Web应用的标准文件（.war文件）。所有JSP兼容的服务器必须支持这些标准。我们可以建立过滤器作用到任意树木的Servlet和JSP页面上，但不能用于非标准资源。Web应用安全设置也同样如此。
此外，业界对JSP和Servlet技术的巨大支持使得这两项技术都有了巨大的进步，从而减轻了对JSP的许多批评。例如，JSP标准标签库和JSP 2.0表达式语言解决了两种最广泛的批评：缺乏良好的迭代结构；不使用显式的Java代码或冗长的jsp:useBean元素难以访问动态结果。
三、对JSP的误解
忘记JSP技术是服务器端技术
下面是Marty收到的一些典型问题（大部分问题不止一次的出现）。
我们的服务器正在运行JDK1.4。我如何将Swing组件用到JSP页面中呢？
我如何将图像放到JSP页面中？我不知道读取图像文件应该使用哪些Java I/O命令。
Tomcat不支持JavaScript，当用户在图像上移动鼠标时，我如何使图像突出显示呢？
我们的客户使用不理解JSP的旧浏览器。我应该怎么做？
当我们的客户在浏览器中使用“View Source”（查看源代码）时，如何阻止他们看到JSP标签？
所有这些问题都基于浏览器对服务器端的过程在有所了解的假定之上。但事实上浏览器并不了解服务器端的过程。因此：
如果要将使用Swing组件的applet放到网页中，重要的是浏览器的Java版本，和服务器的Java版本无关。如果浏览器支持Java 2平台，您可以使用正常的APPLET（或Java插件）标签，即使在服务器上使用了非Java技术也须如此。
您不需要Java I/O来读取图像文件，您只需将图像放在存储Web资源的目录中（即WEB-INF/classes向上两级的目录），并输出一个正常的IMG标签。
您应该用SCRIPT标签，使用客户端JavaScript创建在鼠标下会更改的图像，这不会由于服务器使用JSP而改变。
浏览器根本不“支持”JSP----它们看到的只是JSP页面的输出。因此，如同对待静态HTML页面一样，只需确保JSP输出的HTML与浏览器兼容。
当然，您不需要采取什么措施来阻止客户看到JSP标签，这些标签在服务器上进行处理，发送给客户的输出中并不出现。
混淆转换期间和请求期间
JSP页面需要转换成servlet。Servlet在编译后，载入到服务器的内容中，初始化并执行。但是每一步发生在什么时候呢？要回答这个问题，要记住以下两点：
JSP页面仅在修改后第一次被访问时，才会被转换成servlet并进行编译；
载入到内存中、初始化和执行遵循servlet的一般规则。
表1列出一些常见的情形，讲述在该种情况下每一步是否发生。最常被误解的项已经突出标示出来。在参考该表时，要注意，由JSP页面生成的servlet使用_jspService方法（GET和POST请求都调用该函数），不是doGet或doPost方法。同样，对于初始化，它们使用jspInit方法，而非init方法。
表1 各种情况下的JSP操作
将JSP 页面转换成servlet 编译Servlet 将Servlet 载入到服务器内存中 调用jspInit 调用_jspService
页面初次创建
请求 1 有 有 有 有 有
请求 2 无 无 无 无 有
服务器重启后
请求3 无 无 有 有 有
请求 4 无 无 无 无 有
页面修改后
请求 5 有 有 有 有 有
请求 6 无 无 无 无 有
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